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- Journal of the
Bombay Natural History Society
Vol. 64, No. 1
Editors H. SANTAPAYU, s.J., ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, & J. C. DANIEL
APRIL 1967
Rs. 18 (Inland) Sh. 30 (Foreign)
* NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS
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Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55(2): 243-268.
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8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji 1958).
9. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.
10. Reprints: Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders for additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and packing.
EDITORS, ‘3 Hornbill House, ii Journal of the Bombay Natural Opp. Lion Gate, History Society.
Apollo Street, Fort, Bombay 1-BR.
VOLUME 64, No. 1—APRIL 1967 Date of Publication: 15-7-1967
CONTENTS
THE BATS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS. By J. E. Hill “48 l
A New SPEcIEs OF Christisonia GARDN. FROM SOUTH INDIA. By N. A. Erady.
(With a plate) .. ios me +) iis aa 10 EPILOGUE ON A SIND LAKE. By T. J. Roberts - x ioe 13 AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI, INDIA. By Julian P. Donahue... 22
STUDIES IN TAXONOMY AND ECOLOGY OF Bursera delpechiana Potss. EX ENGL. IN
INDIA. By Rajendra Gupta and Roma Banerji. (With a plate) .. .. 49 ON SOME ASPECTS OF THE BIOLOGY OF Coilia dussumieri (CUV. AND VAL.). By
Madhav Gadgil. (With six figures) es Re Pee as) FALCONRY. By S. M. Osman. (With two plates) - a tes 40
\ ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF MussooriIE HILLs. By M. B. Raizada and
H. O. Saxena... ae a ae ie ee 75
A NEw SPECIES OF FRESHWATER FISH OF THE GENUS Hemiramphus Cuv. FROM GORAKHPUR, UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA. By G. J. Srivastava. (With
a text-figure) ue ui: ma Za ae .. 93 STUDIES ON THE VEGETATION OF PONDS, SWAMPS AND RIVER BANKS IN RAIPUR,
MADHYA PRADESH. By K. Sankaran Unni. (With a map) iF ea «605 REVIEWS :
1. Evolution. (D.E.R.) .. <2 es As .s _ 103
2. Dictionary of Economic Plants in India. (P.V. Bole) 2 os 103
3. Man and Insects. (D.E.R.) i ’. Fe .. 104
4. The Crab and its relatives. (B.F.C.) ee oy -. 106
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :
1. Palm Squirrel Funambulus palmarum (Linnaeus) in Australia. By Ishwar Prakash (p. 108). 2. Great Crested Grebe (Podiceps cristatus Linn.) in Nepal. By R. G. M. Willan (p. 108). 3. The Purple Wood Pigeon (Columba punicea Blyth) and the Himalayan Tree Pie (Dendrocitta formosae Swinhoe) in Orissa. By S.D. Jayakar (p. 109). 4. Nestling of Common Indian Nightjar, Caprimulgus asiaticus Latham. By B. S. Lamba (p. 110). 5. The House Crow Corvus splendens Vieillot feeding on the Indian Desert Gerbil Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon). By William D. Fitzwater (p. 111). 6. Observations on the mating behaviour and copulation in Draco dussumieri Dum. & Bib. (Reptilia: Sauria). By K. O.John (p.112). 7. The Hooded Malpolon, M. moilensis (Reuss) and notes on other snakes of north-eastern Arabia. By J. Mandaville (With a plate) (p. 115). 8. Rhina anchylostoma Schneider from the inshore waters off Porto- novo, S. India. By T. Venkateswarlu (With a photograph) (p. 118). 9. Remarks on the band pattern of the Sole Zebrias synapturoides (Jenkins). By K. V. Rama Rao (With a plate) (p. 119). 10. A re-description of the Anchovy Engraulis rambhae
Chaudhuri. By S. Dutt (p.120). il. A note on the Torch (Soonthu) fishing for whitebait off Rameswaram in Palk Bay. By P.S. B. R. James (p. 123). 12. Lymantria obfuscata Wik. and its natural enemies in Kashmir. By M. K. Zutshi (p.126). 13. A record of Delias sanaca perspicua Fruhstorfer (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) from India. By D. K. Manda! and H. C. Ghosh (p. 129). 14. A note on Arya rubrelineata Dist. (Jassidae, Homoptera) from Kalyani. By K. Ramachandra Rao (With a text-figure) (p. 130). 15. Record of Cletus bipunctatus Westw. (Hemiptera : Coreidae) on wild Rajgira Amaranthus viridis Linn. in the Tarai, Uttar Pradesh. By J. P. Singh (p. 131). 16. Pedunculate cirripedes, Conchoderma virgatum (Spengler) attached to a pennellid Copepod, Pennella sp. parasitic on a flying fish, Cypsilurus (Hirundichthys) speculiger (Cuv. et Val.). By A. Daniel and V. K. Premkumar (With two photographs) (p. 132). 17. _ Euclidium tenussimum (Pallas) Fedt. and Medicago rugosa Descr.: Two new records for India. By N. C. Nair (With a plate) (p. 133). 18. Amaranthus polygoncides Linn. from Osmanabad District : A new record for India. By V. N. Naik (p. 134). 19. Justicia trinervia Vahl. A new record for Orissa. By C. P. Sreemadhavan (p. 135). 20. Elatine ambigua Wt. A new record for Erstwhile Bombay State. By J. G. Chohan, G. L. Shah and M. B. Deshpande (With a text-figure) (p. 135). 21. Additions to the flora of Dangs Forest, Gujarat. By G. L. Shah and B. Suryanarayana (p.136 ).
JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY
1967 APRIL Vol. 64 No. |
The Bats of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
BY J. E. HILyi
Department of Zoology, British Museum (Natural History)
This paper summarises the species of bats so far known from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and provides notes on a small collection of bats obtained by Mr. Humayun Abdulali during visits to various islands in the two groups. His efforts have added Megaderma spasma to the list of bats recorded from the Andamans and Taphozous saccolaimus crassus to those known from the Nicobars. Further specimens of Hippo- sideros diadema nicobarensis and Pipistrellus javanicus camortae have been obtained, enabling an assessment of the taxonomic status of these hitherto poorly known forms to be made.
The bat fauna of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands is known from a wide diversity of descriptions and records. Consequently, the examina- tion of a collection of bats obtained in these islands by Mr. Humayun Abdulali in the course of two ornithological trips has prompted a brief review to establish a basis for any future studies. Consisting of thirty-six specimens representing ten species, the collection adds Megaderma spasma to the bats so far recorded from the Andamans and Taphozous saccolaimus crassus to those so far known from the Nicobars. I am in- debted to Mr. Abdulali and to the Bombay Natural History Society for the opportunity of studying this interesting collection, of which some specimens have been donated to the British Museum (Natural History), the balance being retained by the Society. Specimens are denoted by the field collection numbers which form two separate series, one referring to specimens from the Andaman Islands, the other to those collected on the Nicobar Islands.
2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
MEGACHIROPTERA Pteropus (?) hypomelanus satyrus Andersen
Pteropus satyrus Andersen, 1908, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (8), 2:362. Narcondam Island, Andaman Islands.
Andersen (1908 :363) at first thought that satyrus probably replaced the widespread P. hypomelanus in the Andaman Islands but subsequently (1912:142) considered it to be the Andamanese representative of P. hypomelanus, probably most nearly related to P. h. geminorum from the Mergui Archipelago. Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951 :95) tentatively listed it as a subspecies of P. hypomelanus.
Pteropus faunulus Miller
Pteropus faunulus Miller, 1902, Proc. U.S. natn. Mus. 24:785. Car Nicobar Island, Nicobar Islands.
1 sex unknown. Car Nicobar.
This specimen was sent by the Bombay Natural History Society to the British Museum (Natural History) in 1964 so that its identity could be verified. It was then returned and it has not been available for exa- mination during the preparation of these notes. In colour it agrees very closely with the description by Miller and with one of the three examples referred to faunulus in the collection of the British Museum (Natural History). It differs from the remaining two [one, B.M. 6.4.13.1 that described by Andersen (1912:143) ] in having a paler dorsal surface with the mantle, head, and ventral surface brighter and less tawny. Ander- sen (1912 :143) considered faunulus allied to P. hypomelanus and it has a close similarity to P. h. enganus from Engano Island. Their dissimilarities do not seem very great and it is probable that faunulus may prove to be no more than a subspecies of P. hypomelanus.
Pteropus melanotus melanotus Blyth
Pteropus edulis Blyth, 1846, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 15 :367 (not of E. Geoffroy, 1810).
Pteropus nicobaricus Fitzinger, 1861, Sber. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 42 :389 (nom. nud.). Nicobar Islands.
Pteropus melanotus Blyth, 1863, Cat. Mamm. Mus. Asiat. Soc. 20. Nicobar Islands.
Pteropus nicobaricus Zelebor, 1869, Reise “‘ Novara’’, Saugeth. 11. Car Nicobar Island, Nicobar Islands.
Pteropus melanotus is recorded from the Andaman Islands (as P. nicobaricus) by early authors until and including Trouessart (1904). However, Mason (1908:162) separated specimens from the Andamans as P. tytleri and this view is elaborated by Andersen (1912:224), who gave further diagnostic characters.
THE BATS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 3
Pteropus (?) melanotus tytleri Mason
Pteropus tytleri Dobson, 1874, Cat. Chiroptera Indian Mus., 3 (nom. nud.). South Andaman Island.
Pteropus tytleri Dobson, 1876, Monogr. Asiat. Chiroptera, 189 (nom. nud.). South Andaman Island.
Pteropus tytleri Mason, 1908, Rec. Indian Mus. 2:162. Rutland Island, South Andaman Islands.
Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951:96) pointed out that tytleri does not seem a valid species and that Chasen (1940 :28) had reduced the other members of the melanotus group of Andersen (1912:223) to sub- species of melanotus although treated as distinct species by this author. Certainly, tytleri is separated from P. m. melanotus by no greater extent than are P. m. modigliani from Engano Island or P. m. natalis from Christmas Island.
Pteropus vampyrus (Linnaeus) Vespertilio vampyrus Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. 10th. ed. 1: 31. Java.
The evidence for the existence on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of a large fruit bat referable or allied to P. vampyrus is reviewed by Miller (1902 :786) and Andersen (1912 :343). Fitzinger (1861 :390) listed a speci- men from the Nicobar Islands [as Pachysoma giganteum (not of Briinnich, 1782) ] which was later described from Car Nicobar by Zelebor (1869 :10) (as Pteropus edulis var. b. Pachysoma giganteum). A further record is provided by Dobson (1878 :50) who described (as Pteropus edulis) a spe- cimen from the Andaman Islands. Mason (1908:165) stated that P. vampyrus (as P. celaeno) occurs throughout the Nicobar Islands as a seasonal migrant.
Pteropus giganteus (Briinnich) Vespertilio gigantea Bruinnich, 1782, Dyrenes Historie, 1:45. Bengal, India.
Mason (1908 :165) recorded P. giganteus (as P. medius) as an occa- sional and rare straggler to the Andaman Islands, noting that it had then been encountered on but two occasions, on North Andaman Island.
Cynopterus brachyotis scherzeri (Zelebor)
Pachysoma scherzeri Fitzinger, 1861, Sber. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 42:390 (nom. nud.). Nicobar Islands.
__ Cynopterus marginatus var. (Pachysoma scherzeri) Zelebor, 1869, Reise “Novara,” Saugeth. 13. Car Nicobar Island, Nicobar Islands.
2 9 Q Nos. 15 (juvenile), 16 (young adult). Trinkut Island, Nicobar Islands. 11th March, 1966. Hanging under the midrib of a coconut frond together with a third differently coloured bat which escaped.
The dorsal surface of the head and the anterior part of the back in the young adult specimen (No. 16) is less brown and more greyish than
4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
in specimens from Car Nicobar Island and the posterior part of the back is very slightly paler. The juvenile specimen (No. 15) is dark grey in colour, the underside very slightly paler than the back.
Cynopterus brachyotis brachysoma Dobson
Cynopterus brachysoma Dobson, 1871, Proc. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 105; J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 40:260. Andaman Islands.
Cynopterus marginatus var. andamanensis Dobson, 1873, Proc. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 148 (nom. nud.); J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 42: 201, pl. 14, fig. 5. Andaman Islands.
2 oo Nos. 88, 89. Mandapahar, Chiria Tapoo, South Andaman Island. 15th February, 1964. Small cave on seashore. Weight 51 gms. each.
The posterior part of the back in these specimens is very slightly paler than in C. b. scherzeri and in one (No. 88) the anterior part of the back is less brown and more olivaceous. The other specimen has the throat and the sides of the neck suffused with rufous.
In life, the skin covering the larger bones of the wing was conspi- cuously pale.
MICROCHIROPTERA
Taphozous melanopogon melanopogon Temminck
' Taphozous melanopogon Temminck, 1841, Mon. Mamm. 2: 287. Bantam, Western ava.
3 oo Nos. 85-87. Mandapahar, Chiria Tapoo, South Andaman Island. 15th February, 1964. Out of a party of 10-15 in small cave on seashore. The cave held nests of Collocalia fuciphaga. Weights 21, 22, 22 gms.
Khajuria (1953:117) recorded four female examples of T. melano- pogon from the Andaman Islands.
Taphozous saccolaimus crassus Blyth
Taphozous crassus Blyth, 1844, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 13: 491. Mirzapore, Allahabad, India.
1 Q@ No. 9. Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar Island. 4th March, 1966. Clearing on edge of high forest along seashore.
Taphozous saccolaimus has not been recorded hitherto either from the Nicobar Islands or from the Andaman Islands. This specimen has pale brown underparts, lightening to white on the flanks immediately beneath the insertion of the wing membrane, which has a narrow band of short white hairs on its ventral surface behind the forearm. The speci- men is darker ventrally than pale-bellied examples formerly referred to affinis (=saccolaimus) but has much paler underparts than dark-bellied specimens characteristic of saccolaimus as formerly understood.
Megaderma spasma (Linnaeus)
Vespertilio spasma Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. ed. 10, 1: 32. Ternate, Molucca Islands.
1 2 No. 84. Wrightmyo, South Andaman Island, 15th February, 1964. Flew into room in the Forest Bungalow.
THE BATS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS >
There is no previous record of M. spasma from either the Andaman Islands or the Nicobar Islands and it is difficult to allocate this specimen to any one of the described subspecies. In colour it closely resembles M. s. majus (Burma), M. s. minus (Thailand, Indochina), and M. s. trifolium (Sumatra, Java, Borneo). In length of forearm (56.9 mm.) it agrees with M. s. horsfieldi (India), M. s. ceylonense (Ceylon), M. s. medium (Tenasserim, Malay Peninsula), and M. s. trifolium but it has a very large skull (greatest length 27.0 mm., c—m? 10.4 mm., length of mandible 17.9 mm.), in this respect agreeing more closely with M. s. majus. These circumstances suggest that subspecific designation should be deferred until more adequate series of specimens from the Andaman Islands and from near-by territories are available.
Rhinolophus andamanensis Dobson
Rhinolophus andamanensis Dobson, 1872, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 41, 2: 337. South Andaman Island.
Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951 :114) pointed out that R. anda- manensis is very like R. affinis and may represent that species in the Andaman Islands.
Rhinolophus cognatus cognatus Andersen
Rhinolophus cognatus Andersen, 1906, Annali Mus. civ. Stor. nat. Giacomo Doria, (3), 2: 181. Port Blair, South Andaman Island. e
Rhinolophus ? cognatus famulus Andersen
Rhinolophus famulus Andersen, 1918, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (9), 2: 377. North Central Island, Andaman Islands.
There seems little doubt that famulus is but subspecifically related to cognatus, differing chiefly in smaller size (Andersen, 1918 :377).
Hipposideros diadema nicobarensis (Dobson)
se nicobarensis Dobson, 1871, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 40, 2: 262. Nicobar Islands.
6 sex undetermined Nos. 18-23. Trinkut, Middle Nicobar Islands. 20th March, 1966. Cave on seashore. Collected by B. R. Grubh and P. B. Shekar.1
Hitherto, H. d. nicobarensis appears to have been represented in collections solely by the type specimen, a female in alcohol, collected by Dr. Stoliczka and preserved in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. So far as can be determined from the dry specimens, they conform closely to the original description. This is the smallest of the described subspecies of H. diadema, the length of the forearm in fact equal only to that of H. larvatus, from which H. d. nicobarensis is readily distinguished by its much larger skull. Minimum, maximum and mean (in parentheses) measurements in millimetres of six specimens (except where stated):
1 Society’s staff members who accompanied Mr. Abdulali—eps.
6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
length of forearm 58.8-64.2 (62.2); condylocanine length (five speci- mens) 22.6-22.9 (22.7); width of rostrum 7.8-8.1 (8.0); interorbital width 3.3-3.4 (3.3); zygomatic width 14.5-15.0 (14.7); mastoid width (five specimens) 12.4-13.0 (12.7) and c—m? 9.7-10.0 (9.9). Despite the comparatively small size of nicobarensis, there is no reason to doubt its allocation to H. diadema as a subspecies. There is no anti- tragal projection and the anterior noseleaf lacks any definite median emargination. The posterior noseleaf is high and is supported by a median septum, the upper part of the leaf wide and folded anteriorly over the intermediate part of the leaf. The dorsal pelage is soft and dense, the hairs tricolored, dark brown at the base, centrally grey and tipped with brown. For the most part, the ventral pelage is similar in colour but the hairs are paler at the base and are less evidently tipped with brown, especially towards the flanks. On the extreme anterior part of the chest and on the throat the hairs are grey white throughout their length. Laterally, along the flanks beneath the junction of the wing membrane and the body the hairs are dark brown at the base but otherwise are grey white, without any brown tipping, the white element in some specimens extending in front of the junction of the antebrachial membrane with the body to form a small white tuft. There is often a further white patch on the flanks above the junction of the anterior part of the wing mem- brane and body, at the base of the forearm. Cranially, the sphenoidal bridge is wide and the pterygoids expanded as in H. diadema. In its com- paratively very small size this subspecies forms an exception to the general rule (Hill, 1963:108) that the larger subspecies of H. diadema are to be found in the western parts of its range and the smaller sub- species in the easterly areas of its distribution.
Hipposideros ater nicobarulae Miller
Hipposideros nicobarulae Miller, 1902, Proc. U. S. natn. Mus. 24: 781. Little Nicobar Island.
3 oo Nos. 7, 8, 12; 4 9 @ Nos. 5, 6, 10, 11. Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar Island. 4th March, 1966. Cave on seashore.
1 & No. 25. Camorta Island, Middle Nicobar Islands. 29th March, 1966. In old Japanese anti-aircraft box.
1 J No. 31; 2 9 9 Nos. 32, 33. Car Nicobar Island. 7th April, 1966. Cave near seashore.
One specimen (No. 5) is in the rufous phase, in contrast to the re- mainder in the greyish brown phase.
(2) Hipposideros fulvus fulvus Gray Hipposideros fulvus Gray, 1838, Mag. Zool, Bot. 492. Dharwar, India. Hipposideros murinus Gray, 1838, Mag. Zool. Bot. 492. Dharwar, India. Blyth (1846 :368) recorded H. f. fulvus (as H. murinus) from the Nicobar Islands. Externally, it is very like H. ater although rather larger and it is possible that this record refers to H. a. nicobarulae.
THE BATS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 7
Myotis (?) adversus dryas Andersen
Myotis dryas Andersen, 1907, Annali Mus. civ. Stor. nat. Giacomo Doria, (3), 3: 33. Port Blair, South Andaman Island.
Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951 :149) tentatively listed dryas as a subspecies of M. adversus.
Pipistrellus javanicus camortae Miller
Pipistrellus camortae Miller, 1902, Proc. U.S. natn. Mus. 24: 779. Camorta Island, Nicobar Islands.
409 Nos. 1-4. Great Nicobar Island. 3rd March, 1966. Clearing on edge of high forest along seashore.
1 sex undetermined No. 17 (subadult). Camorta Island, Middle Nicobar Islands. 13th March, 1966. In clearing in forest.
These specimens are referred to camortae without direct comparison but agree closely with the original description. Their close resemblance to P. javanicus indicates that camortae should be considered no more than subspecifically related to this species. They are rather smaller than P. j. javanicus from Java with the minimum, maximum and mean (in parentheses ) length of the forearm in four specimens 31 .3-32.7 (31.8) mm. and c—m? 4.7, 4.7 and 4.6 mm. In length of forearm they resemble P. j. paterculus from Burma but have larger and more massive teeth. The specimen from Camorta Island has dark brown dorsal pelage with the ventral pelage of similar but slightly paler colour. Those from Great Nicobar Island have dorsal pelage that is darker and more blackish brown: the ventral pelage, although paler, is a darker brown than in the example from Camorta. This specimen is very slightly darker both dorsally and ventrally than P. j. javanicus and approaches the palest of P. j. paterculus in colour but the specimens from Great Nicobar agree exactly with the darker specimens of this subspecies. Earlier records of P. abramus (Dobson, 1876:212; J. Anderson, 1881 :129) and of P. tenuis (Zelebor, 1869:16) may be based upon specimens of P. j. camortae. Vesperugo nicobaricus Fitzinger (1861 :390, nom. nud.) refers to the record subsequently regarded as P. tenuis by Zelebor.
Hesperoptenus tickelli (Blyth)
Nycticejus tickelli Blyth, 1851, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 20: 157. Chaibassa, Orissa, India (Wroughton, 1918: 22).
1 & No. 22. Wrightmyo, South Andaman Island. 11th February, 1964. On the border of mangrove and forest.
1 # No. 214. Long Island, Middle Andaman Islands. 27th February, 1964. Over seashore and maidan, near town.
1 Q No. 230. Long Island, Middle Andaman Islands. 28th February, 1964.
These specimens agree closely with specimens from Ceylon in size and colour: like these they are a little darker and more richly coloured dorsally than are the majority of Indian specimens. Dobson (1876 :208)
and J. Anderson (1881:132) recorded A. tickelli from the Andaman Islands.
8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
Tylonycteris pachypus fulvida (Blyth)
Scotophilus fulvidus Blyth, 1859, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 28: 293. Schwegyin, River Sittang, south-eastern Burma.
1 og No. 128. See South Andaman Island. 17th February, 1964. Over dry ricefield. Weight 3.5
This specimen has a ae. skull but agrees in colour with T. p. fulvida, to which it is referred provisionally. Dobson (1876:116, 210) and J. Anderson (1881 :126) recorded a series of Andamanese specimens of T. pachypus.
Scotophilus temminckii (Horsfield)
Vespertilio temminckii Horsfield, 1824, Zool. Res. Java, pt. 8, pl. 9. Western Java (Sody, 1936: 48).
Recorded from the Nicobar Islands by Blyth (1863:354). There appear to be no subsequent records.
Miniopterus australis pusillus Dobson
Miniopterus pusillus Dobson, 1876, Monogr. Asiat. Chiroptera, 162. Nicobar Islands (Wroughton, 1918: 22).
The collection of the British Museum (Natural History) contains specimens from Katchal Island, Nicobar Islands, whence it was recorded by J. Anderson (1881 :146). Presumably the subsequent reports by A.R.S. Anderson (1903 :164) (as M. schreibersi) and Seymour Sewell (1922 :979) refer to this bat.
BATS RECORDED FROM THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS:
Pteropus melanotus melanotus Pteropus (?) hypomelanus satyrus Pteropus vampyrus Pteropus giganteus Cynopterus brachyotis brachysoma* Taphozous melanopogon melanopogon* Megaderma spasma.* Rhinolophus andamanensis Rhinolophus cognatus cognatus Rhinolophus (?) cognatus famulus Myotis (?) adversus dryas Hesperoptenus tickelli* Tylonycteris pachypus fulvida*
* Obtained by Mr. Abdulali
THE BATS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 9
BATS RECORDED FROM THE NICOBAR ISLANDS:
Pteropus (?) melanotus tytleri Pteropus faunulus*
Pteropus vampyrus
Cynopterus brachyotis scherzeri* Taphozous saccolaimus crassus* Hipposideros diadema nicobarensis*
Hipposideros ater nicobarulae (?) Hipposideros fulvus fulvus Pipistrellus javanicus camortae* Scotophilus temminckii Miniopterus australis pusillus
* Obtained by Mr. Abdulali.
REFERENCES
ANDERSEN, K. (1908): Twenty new forms of Pteropus. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (8), 2: 361-370.
(1912): Catalogue of the Chiroptera in the collection of the British Museum. I. Megachiroptera. London. (1918): Diagnoses of new bats of the families Rhinolophide and Meégadermatide. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (9), 2: 374-384.
ANDERSON, A. R. S. (1903): Diary of a visit to the Nicobars for census purposes. Census of India, 1901, 3: 163-164.
ANDERSON, J. (1881): Catalogue of Mammalia in the Indian Museum, Cal- cutta. Part I. Primates, Prosimiz, Chirop- tera, and Insectivora. Calcutta.
BLYTH, E. (1846): Notes on the fauna of the Nicobar Islands. J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 15: 367-379.
(1863): In Mouat, F. J. Adventures and Researches among the Andaman Islanders. Appendix: The Zoology of the Andaman Islands, pp. 345-367. London.
CHASEN, F. N. (1940): A Handlist of Malaysian mammals. Bull. Raffles Mus. No. 15: i-xx, 1-209, map.
Dosson, G. E. (1876): Monograph of the Asiatic Chiroptera and catalogue of the species of bats in the collection of the Indian Museum, Calcutta. London.
(1878): Catalogue of the Chiroptera in the collection of the British Museum. London.
ELLERMAN, J. R. AND MorRISON- sconr, DT: C: S., (1951): Checklist of Palearctic and Indian mammals, 1758- 1946. Ist. ed. London.
FITZINGER, L. J. (1861): Die Ausbeute der Osterreichischen Naturforscher au
Saugethieren und Reptilien wahrend der Weltumsegelung Sr. Mayjestat Fregatte Novara. Sber. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 1860, 42: 383-416.
HILx, J. E. (1963): A revision of the genus Hipposideros. Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. Zoology, 11: 1-129, 41 figs., 2 tabs.
KuHasurRIA, H. (1953): Taxonomic studies on some Indian Chiroptera. Rec. Indian Mus. 50: 113-128.
Mason, G. E. (1908): On the fruit bats of the genus Pteropus inhabiting the Andaman and Nicobar Archipelagos, with the description of a new species. Rec. Indian Mus. 2: 159-166.
MILLER, G. S. (1902): The mammals of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Proc. U. S. natn. Mus. 24: 751-795, 2 pls.
SEYMOUR SEWELL, R. B. (1922): A survey season in the Nicobar Islands in the R.I.M.S. ‘‘ Investigator,’’ October 1921, to March 1922. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 28: 970-989, 4 pls.
Sopy, H. J. V. (1936): Seventeen new generic, specific, and subspecific names for Dutch East Indian mammals. Natuur. Tijdschr. Ned.-Indie 96: 42-45.
TROUESSART, E. L. (1897): Catalogus mammalium tam viventium quam fossi- lium. I. Primates, Prosimiz, Chiroptera, Insectivora. Berlin.
WROUGHTON, R. C. (1918): Summary of the results from the Indian Mammal Survey of the Bombay Natural History Society. Part II. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 19-58.
ZELEBOR, J. (1869): Reise der oster- reichen Fregatte Novara um die Erde in den Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859. Zool, I (Wirbelthiere), 1, Saugethiere.
A new Species of Christisonia Gardn. from South India
BY N. A. ERADY Government Victoria College, Palghat
(With a plate)
A new species, Christisonia keralensis, which comes near C. saulieri Dunn is described. It is based on a study of living specimens collected at Nelliyampathi Hills in the Western Ghats, Kerala State, South India.
The plant forming the subject of this paper was found growing at Nelliyampathi in the Western Ghats at an altitude of about 500 metres. It was first collected by the author in August 1960 and subsequently in September 1965. The plant seems to be a new species of Christisonia
Gardn. and a description of it based on a study of living specimens is given below. |
Christisonia keralensis sp. nov.
>
Plantae erectae, haud virides, parasitantes Ficus asperrimae radices. Ra- dices plures, filamentosae, profuse ramosae, ad 1.5 mm. crassae. Rhizoma 2-8 cm. longum, ad 1.2 cm. crassum, irregulariter cylindricum, fusco-brun- neum, vulgo non furcatum, ornatum foliis minutis squamosis sparsis, quae progressive maiora evadunt supra. Inflorescentia solitaria et termi- nalis vel raro bina ternave emergens ex axillis squamarum; racemus 5-10-florus. Pedunculi 20-30 cm. longi, ad 1.2 cm. crassi ad basin, gra- datim fastigati versus apicem, glabri et pallide brunneo-rosacei. Bracteae 1-1.5 cm. longae, 5-8 mm. latae, pallide brunneo-rosaceae, glabrae, inferiores quidem steriles et deltoideae, superiores fertiles et ovatae. Pedicelli 1.5-3 cm. longi, ad 3mm. crassi, vulgo erecti et brunneo-rosacei. Flores 3.5-5 cm. longi, ebracteolati. Calyx 2.5-3.8 cm. longus, 1.2-1.5 cm. latus, glaber, pallide brunneo-purpureus. Corollae tubus 3.5-5 cm. longus, 1-1.3 cm. latus, products longe supra calycis lacinias, cremeo- albus, glanduloso-pilosus in utraque pagina, gutture luteolo tincto aurantiace, lobis 0.8-1 cm. latis, nitenter violaceis, orbiculari-reniformi- bus. Stamina 4; filamenta pallide purpurea, glanduloso-pilosa per totam longitudinem; antherae pallide purpureae, bicellulares, una cellula fertili, ovata et ad apicem minutim mucronata, altera vero sterili falcata paulo longiore sed graciliori minutim subulata ad apicem, acute calcarata ad basin, calcare extus curvato; connectivum eminenter tumescens ad
J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (1) Erady: Christisonia keralensis
FiaS.1 ? 3-6 33cm
FiGS. 8-14 2cm
Christisonia keralensis sp. nov.
1. A group of plants attached to the roots of the host plant (4); 2. Rhizome with deltoid scales and wiry roots; 3. Roots showing several adventitious buds developed near the host root; 4. Flower; 5. Side view of corolla; 6. Spread open corolla with androecium and gynoecium. 7. Spread open corolla showing epipetalous stamens ; 8-9. Side views of the stamen, one showing lateral swelling on the connective; 10-14. Sections of the ovary at different levels from base to apex; 15. Glandular hair.
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A NEW SPECIES OF CHRISTISONIA GARDN. 11
unum latus; pollinis grana 23-25 vu longa, 50-70 uw lata, ovoidea parietibus levibus. Ovarium uniloculare; ovula 180-200 w longa, 125-150 yp lata; stylus glaber inclusus, sed attingens supra antheras, stigma peltatum.
Typus lectus in Kerala, in India meridionali, in montibus Ghat Occidentalibus ad altit. 500 m. ab N.A. Erady die 17 Aug. 1960 et positus in herb. Govt. Coll. Victoria ad Palghat sub numero 1117.
Erect, non-green herbs, parasitic on the roots of Ficus asperrimae Roxb. Roots very numerous, wiry, profusely branched, up to 1.5 mm. thick, with irregular swellings at the place of contact with the host roots and developing many adventitious buds. Rhizome 2-8 cm. long, up to 1.2 cm. thick, irregularly cylindrical, dark brown, usually unbranched with small sparsely arranged deltoid scale leaves, which become pro- gressively larger above. Inflorescence solitary and terminal, or rarely 2-3 arising from the axils of scale leaves; raceme 5-10-flowered. Pedun- cles 20-30 cm. long, up to 1.2 cm. thick at the base, gradually tapering towards the apex, glabrous and light brownish pink. Bracts 1-I1.5 cm. long, 5-8 mm. broad, light brownish pink, glabrous, lower ones sterile and deltoid, upper ones fertile and ovate. Pedicels 1.5-3 cm. long, up to 3 mm. thick, usually erect and brownish pink. Flowers 3.5-5 cm. long, ebracteolate, bisexual, hypogynous and zygomorphic. Calyx 2.5-3.8 cm. long, 1.2-1.5 cm. broad, glabrous, light brownish pink, tubular campa- nulate with slight median zygomorphy, tube split at the top to one third the length into 5 subequal triangular valvate lobes with acute apex. Corolla tube 3.5-5 cm. long, 1-1.3 cm. broad, prolonged much above the level of the calyx lobes, slightly bent towards the anterior side, creamy white, glandular hairy on both sides, lower half closely appressed to the ovary, upper half inflated; throat yellowish with a tinge of orange; tube expanding into a sub-bilabiate 5-lobed limb; lobes 0.8-1 cm. broad, bright violet, orbicular reniform, imbricate, anterior three lobes some- what equal and slightly smaller than the posterior lobes. Stamens 4, inserted at the constricted part of the corolla tube, included, imperfectly didynamous; filaments light purplish, glandular hairy throughout; anthers pale purplish, two-celled, one of the cells fertile, ovate and with a short minutely subulate apex, dehiscing longitudinally, the other cell sterile, falcate, slightly longer than the fertile cell but thinner, apex minutely subulate, base sharply spurred with tip curved outwards; con- nective with a prominent swelling on one side; pollen grains 23-25 p long, 15-17 » broad, ovoid and with smooth wall. Ovary of 2 median carpels, syncarpous, superior, unilocular with a tendency to become bilocular at the base; placentae 2, parietal, bipartite, tips expanding into fleshy portions; ovules 180-200 uw long, 125-150 wu broad, numerous, anatropous and arising from the entire surface of the placenta; style glabrous, included but reaching above the level of the anthers; stigma peltate and with a narrow depression in the centre,
12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
Of the 10 species of Christisonia with ebracteolate flowers included in the section Euchristisonia by Beck Mannagetta (1930), only Christi- sonia saulieri Dunn shows some resemblance with this plant.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author’s sincere thanks are due to Rev. Fr. Dr. H. Santapau for rendering into Latin the diagnosis of the new species and for sugges- tions in the preparation of this note and to Sri R. Vasudevan Nair for providing the Indian Ink Drawings.
REFERENCES
BECK MANNAGETTA, G. (1930): Oro- Fyson, P.F. (1932) : Flora of South banchacee in Engler’s Pflanzenreich, Indian Hill Stations, 1 : 435 & t. 376. 96: 308-317.
Dunvw, S. T. (1914): Christisonia saulieri Dunn in DECADES!®KEWENSES. Kew Bulletin 30.
Epilogue on a Sind Lake
BY
T. J. ROBERTS Roberts Cotton Associates Ltd., Khanewal, West Pakistan
Manchar Lake in the north-western region of former Sind Province has long been famous amongst sportsmen as the winter haunt of vast flocks of waterfowl. In the New Year of 1928 it was visited by Dr. SAlim Ali, and his vivid account of the birdlife and of the fascinating methods used by the local fishermen or Mohannas to hunt and capture fish and fowl from the lake waters, remains on record in Volume 32(3) of this Journal. I hope therefore that it will be of interest to record the impres- sions of a visit to the lake some thirty-eight years later.
In 1928 the main irrigation scheme in Sind, emanating from a huge barrage across the Indus River at Sukkur, was not yet completed and it was feared that the whole lake, which depends on a natural seepage channel from the Indus River downstream of Sukkur, would ultimately be drained in order to augment the fertile acres which were already cultivated around the margins of Manchar as the summer floods receded. Though, there has been no deliberate drainage scheme, these fears have proved only partly unfounded as several major irrigation schemes on the Indus and its tributaries upstream of Manchar have served to de- crease the flow of water which annually feed this lake which is now much reduced in area, and overgrown with reeds.
Even today, Manchar is still relatively remote and difficult of access to the outside visitor and though I had often wished to see the lake, which is reputed to be the biggest fresh water body on the sub-continent, it was not until December 1965 that an opportunity arose, when I was invited to join a small shooting party. Having occasionally heard first hand reports of persons who had visited Manchar, and being a witness to the alarming decline of many migrant bird species during the past fifteen years that I have lived out here, I was fully prepared for disappointments. Nevertheless I was shocked to find such small numbers of certain water fowl species as the following account will reveal.
Approaching Manchar via the railway line that runs along the west bank of the Indus, our party detrained at the historic old town of Sehwan, famous as the burial place of a Holy Saint! and a place of pil- grimage. From here we travelled about eight miles by Landrover over
1 Qallandar Lal Shah Baz—Mayne, P.; Saints of Sind—J. Murray.
14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
an incredibly bad and dusty track to the village of Bubak which squats on a slight hill overlooking the earthen embankment which was built some six years ago to contain summer inundations from Manchar’s eastern banks. Arriving at Bubak around 3.30 p.m. we were greeted by the twitter of Common Sandgrouse flighting overhead and the staccato call of Grey Partridges from the tamarisk scrub nearby. My companions being keen sportsmen, immediately set off to walk up the partridges whilst I attempted in the Landrover to reach the lake shore. After penetrating for about three miles inside the area of the embankment, I could still see only a distant fringe of reeds and no water. All the surrounding land was being cultivated with wheat which was irrigated by lift irrigation from a canal flowing from the lake. Judging from the few surrounding trees it did not look as though the area had been subject to more than the briefest flooding, if at all, in recent years. Apart from numerous flocks of Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) probably mixed flocks of the races nobilior (observed by Dr. Salim Ali) and poltaratskyi, I saw no Black- tailed Godwit which I was expecting, but instead three or four large flocks of Dusky or Spotted Redshank (Tringa erythropus), feeding in the young wheat or turning and wheeling in tight flocks in the evening sun. In the Punjab I have observed the Dusky Redshank in small numbers only and mainly as an October and April passage migrant at which times many individuals are in the dark plumage of the summer season. I was later to observe that this wader was the dominant species around the fringes of Manchar and that it is also extremely plentiful in other jheels in northern Sind. Returning to the rest house, I walked along a small drainage channel fringed with tamarisk bushes and here and there by clumps of sedges and reeds. Besides the usual Whitecheeked Bulbul, Striated Babbler (Turdoides earlei), Common Snipe (Capella gallinago) and Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus), I was pleased to get very good views of Painted Snipe (Rostratula benghalensis) and Whitebreasted Waterhen (Amaurornis phoenicurus). Both are species of very local distribution even in northern Sind and are very seldom encountered at all in the Punjab. The Whitebreasted Waterhens were noisy and quarrelsome, whilst a male Painted Snipe fascinated me by bobbing its tail up and down like a Common Sandpiper (Tringa hypoleucos), a habit which I have not seen described in books. On my approaching very close it sank into the half submerged grass until its bill and entire wings were under water and only its striped crown and dark beady eye remained visible.
Our plan was to set off from the rest house at 3.00 a.m. the next morning; to travel by house boat down a canal which leads to the lake, and near its shores to embark on separate small punts from which the various guns in a spread out line would be able to shoot at whatever ducks were moving around at sunrise. Since my idiosyncrasies were well under- stood by the shooters, it was agreed that I should take my punt in an
EPILOGUE ON A SIND LAKE 15
opposite direction to explore with my binoculars as much of the lake as possible. As companions I had two Mohannas who took turns to pole the little vessel across the water. It was bitterly cold and still quite dark when we transferred to these smaller boats and as we passed between flimsy walls of reeds, I crouched in the bottom of the boat trying to keep my knees and wrists warm, listening to the weird cries of the jacanas and stuttering squawks of the Purple Moorhens (Porphyrio porphyrio) which rose noisily at our approach, their huge trailing feet clearly visible even in the darkness. After travelling between these reeds for nearly a mile and at the first glow of dawn, I separated from the others and we entered upon the open water. Even before the red rim of the sun broke the greying skyline, | was aware of bird life all around. Dozens of hovering Pied Kingfishers (Ceryle rudis) flew round the boat and as the sun rose, about twenty Common Swallows (Hirundo rustica), skimmed the disturbed lake surface of our now molten wake as though drawn along by our boat. Collared Sand Martins (Riparia riparia) were hawking higher in the sky, and as the sun gilded the reeds, the skies were criss-crossed by small flights of Common Teal, skeins of Little Cormorants CER aIgErO- corax niger) and the occasional solitary heron.
The boatman told me that Manchar is 24 miles long and 12 miles wide. During the course of that day, we crossed the lake from shore to shore and traversed for several miles along the western shore. Allowing for the shimmering distortion of distant objects and visibility in such surroundings, I do not think the lake today is more than six miles broad by eight to ten miles long. On its western banks it is flanked by the low ochreous foot hills of the Kirthar Range and on the eastern bank, by which we had entered, there is at least a three-quarter mile wide fringe of reeds. The lake is nowhere deeper than 5 to 6 feet now and is clogged with a dense growth of water weed (possibly Limnophila heterophylla), and in isolated patches the rope-like strands of what looked like Urticu- laria stellaris. Here and there solid clumps of tall rushes stand out like islands, and in many stretches the surface of the weed-clogged waters are also carpeted with an orange brown algal growth which, together with the underlying weed, affords sufficient support for Little Stints (Calidris minutus) and numerous Yellow Wagtails (Motacilla flava) to run about the surface and even in certain places to support Pheasant- tailed Jacanas (Hydrophasianus chirurgus) and Paddy Birds (Ardeola grayii). Apart from the many boats which we encountered moving in different directions, we passed four floating villages or collections of house boats complete with cooking fires and tethered chicken. It appears that population pressure has increased even the number of Mohannas who make a living on the lake. -I was told that about twenty maunds of fresh fish are daily despatched by bullock cart to the railhead at Sehwan and that in some seasons many times this quantity, and that this is the
16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
main source of livelihood, as hardly a couple of dozen coots and ducks are captured daily. The fish which, I saw caught, seemed to comprise of three species only. Two were carp (probably Rohu and Mirgal'), and the third with smaller scales a species of catfish (Mori). The old tradi- tional methods of stalking the coots underwater, of shooting the coots with bows and arrows, and netting the duck in small purse nets (known as Dhubi) have been abandoned as there are no longer sufficient number of water fowl to make these techniques worthwhile. All my queries over two days and from various fishermen indicated that most of the duck were secured either by shooting or driving them at night into a net, which I saw suspended between poles and stretching for some five hun- dred yards across the lake. Due to dense weed growth, the fish are mostly caught by baited hooks attached at intervals by short leaders to a long line, which floats on the surface of the water weed and often stretches for 300 or 400 yards in a wide loop. Live fish of fingerling size are used to bait these hooks and the Mohannas keep numerous captive herons and cormorants for securing the fish used as bait. These captive birds are tethered by one leg to the small punts and taken to the shallows when required for fishing. One small punt which I photographed had a Large Egret (Egretta alba), a Purple Heron (Ardea purpurea) and a Grey Heron
(Ardea cinerea) tethered to its gunwales, whilst another house boat had ~
at least fifteen egrets and herons of various species plus five Little Cormo- rants (P. niger). The Large Egret seemed the most popular captive species possibly because of its size; it is distinctly bigger when seen alongside the Grey Heron. Surprisingly the Large Egret was also the most numerous and conspicuous of the many wild egrets and herons seen around the lake. In the early 1900’s Ticehurst mentions having seen but few any- where in Sind and even Sdlim Ali only saw two pairs on Manchar. In contrast to the drastic decline in occurrence of nearly every other conspi- cuous species of water fowl, why should these have increased? The Little Cormorant was also a favourite captive but not the Paddy Bird or Cattle Egret, possibly because of their predilection for frogs instead of fish. I was surprised to see several captive Reef Herons (Egretta gularis). There was no trace of this species amongst the wild ardeidae and indeed I had never heard reports hitherto of its being observed more than 30 or 40 miles inland from the coast and that only during the monsoon season. On en- quiries I found that large numbers come to Manchar during the summer particularly the early part, and I surmise that they follow the Pala, a species of Sea-herring which migrates to spawn in Manchar in huge numbers in March and April. Manchar must be quite 160 miles inland from the coast so this is an interesting record of its penetration. Though a fairly small bird the Reef Heron, was evidently preferred by the Mohan- nas over the larger Purple and Grey Herons. And here, I am tempted to
1 These are the vernacular names.
EPILOGUE ON A SIND LAKE 17
digress momentarily to record that a closely allied species (E. sacra). spreads right across the south-west Pacific and I saw many specimens fishing off the Coral Reefs of the Solomon Islands last September and learned that it occurs there in both white and the usual slaty blue forms. Around Karachi E. gularis, occurs in a pale grey and very dark slate blue phase, as well as pure white specimens. This species presents a wonderful example of polymorphism which deserves further study.
Earlier writers have remarked on the callous cruelty with which the Mohannas keep wounded ducks as well as fish alive after capture, and there was further evidence of this in the method by which these captive herons and cormorants are prevented from fishing and so kept hungry until required to perform for their masters. The Little Cormorants I noticed had the gular pouch of their lower mandibles punctured and pulled up over the upper mandible so that the unfortunate birds are unable to open their mouths at all until the lower mandible is released. Similarly I saw Large White Egrets with their lower eyelids sewn by cotton thread and pulled over the eyes, the thread being drawn in a loop across the top of their crowns. Presumably the thread is cut and the eyelids released in the same way, when the birds are required for fishing.
By the end of the day I estimated, that unless vast numbers of ducks were hiding in the reed beds, not more than five or six thousand ducks of all species were around the lake. About a third of these were Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) and teal which stuck to the reed beds and the eastern shore whilst the remaining two-thirds were White-eyed Pochards (Aythya nyroca) in separate flocks and again separate flocks of Common Pochard (A. ferina) mixed with about 15 to 20% Tufted Pochard (A. fuligula). Mallard and White-eyed Pochard were undoubtedly the two dominant species and I did not identify any Pintail (Anas acuta) or see a single Redcrested Pochard (Netta rufina), two species which I had been told were generally quite numerous on Manchar. On the western banks in the reedy shallows I also put up a number of small groups of Shovellers (A. clypeata) and there might have been three or four hundred of this species. But nowhere were there any solid black flock of water birds such as were encountered by Sdlim Ali, and in fact there are many smaller jheels in Sind which harbour ducks in several hundred thousands as my hunter friends later testified. It is noteworthy that 1965-66 has been one of the worst drought years in the past forty years in the Indus water-shed. Few inundation jheels or suitable feeding places being available, ducks had concentrated in unbelievable swarms on the few large and permanent bodies of water. The small numbers on Manchar are therefore all the more remarkable. But it is the virtual disappearance of the coot which saddened me. In 1914 Ticehurst described the pheno- menal numbers of coots which swam on Sind lakes, and stated that
2
18 JGURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
flocks could be measured not in acres but in square miles. Whole villages lived on the trapping and sale of these unfortunate birds for meat and at the same time they attracted a great concourse of raptors. Even in 1928 Salim Ali averred that the taking of 1000 to 2000 daily seemed to make no impression whatsoever on theirnumbers. Apart from observing three or four small flocks of a dozen up to one hundred individuals, I saw but one large flock on the whole lake, and this far from covering acres was a mere black ribbon numbering perhaps 3000 birds. In this Continent the lowly coot has probably escaped large scale ringing operations, and I am not aware of their main breeding grounds. All West Pakistan birds are winter visitors though a few stragglers have been observed to summer in the foothill regions. I suspect that a good number breed in the swamps of Seistan as Punjab does not receive such numbers as Sind has always done. Seistan is being rapidly dried up by new irrigation and hydro- electric schemes and from what little I have read about Russian develop- ments, there have similarly been many new Dams and Hydroelectric schemes in Asiatic Russia. Perhaps the resultant ecological changes have done more to reduce the coot population than even the ruthless hunting of the Sindhis.
Having a well illustrated bird book with me, I could show various pictures to the boatmen who evinced a keen interest in the pictures, and I was able to cross examine them about the occurrence of many bird species known to frequent the lake and add this to my own observations. I saw no Painted Storks though they were seen in August of this year in small numbers on Manchar by a bird watching friend. I saw no Black Ibis (apparently common in 1928) or storks of any species. Pelicans still visit Manchar but according to my boatmen only in very small numbers. I saw none. Common and Demoiselle Cranes and even Spoonbills are very seldom seen. On the western bank I did see three or four small groups of Glossy Ibis (Plegadis falcinellus) feeding amongst the sedges and the largest flock numbered thirty-five birds. On the main body of the lake itself the two most conspicuous birds were Pheasant-tailed Jacanas and Whiskered Terns (Chlidonias hybrida). The latter were fishing every- where and must have numbered three or four hundred individuals. Per- haps the thick weed makes conditions unsuitable for diving species of terns. Certainly I saw no Caspian Tern (the dominant species in 1928) and only 2 or 3 pairs of noisy River Terns (Sterna aurantia) and three or four Blackbellied Terns (Sterna acuticauda). The Whiskered terns pro- bably feed on small molluscs, flies etc., as they capture their prey by suddenly dipping down to the water surface without actually plunging in. There were three or four small flocks of gulls which were predomi- nantly Blackheaded Gulls (Larus ridibundus) with here and there a Brownheaded Gull (L. brunnicephalus) easily recognised by its wing
EPILOGUE ON A SIND LAKE 19
tips. I saw only very few Slenderbilled Gulls (L. genei) which are usually the dominant species on the lakes of northern Sind.
Compared to the hundreds of thousands of Little Cormorants I have seen on other Sind lakes, there were comparatively few on Manchar. The weed-clogged water undoubtedly offers fish too easy an escape from the diving cormorants and moreover I have noticed that these birds seem to require prolonged periods of perching, to digest their food and dry out their plumage. The bare expanse of Manchar offers practically no suitable perch for webbed footed birds whereas many other Sind jheels are characterised by acres of flooded tamarisk bushes which are used by the Small Cormorants. I saw only one Darter (Anhinga rufa) and two Common Cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo). Though I already knew from previous enquiries that flocks of geese no longer visited Manchar, this was corroborated by my boatmen who told me that for the past seven years they have deserted the lake entirely. What a sad contrast to the position as described in Salim Ali’s account.
But despite these disappointments my explorations afforded me many wonderful sights and two especial thrills. The first of these was a Little Bittern (/xobrychus minutus). The Chestnut Bittern (J. cinnamomeus) is possibly the commonest species in Sind followed by the Yellow Bittern (/. sinensis) and then the Black Bittern (D. flavicollis) whilst the Little Bittern is by far the rarest. It is still fairly common as a breeding bird on the lakes around Srinagar as a friend of mine testified this summer, but in other parts of its range because of its extremely shy and skulking habits it is seldom if ever seen, though it is undoubtedly resident and breeding in Sind. We saw this delightfully trim little bird in a fairly small and open clump of sedges and rather than take to flight it froze in its characteristic upstretched stance, allowing me to guide the boat right around it and to study it from a few feet away. Its clumsy looking large olive green feet belied the agile manner in which it was able to clamber over and cling to the vertical reed stems. When put to flight it showed dull purplish black primaries and tail and being a female it had the forecrown also tinged with blue black. Either side of its neck and breast were heavily streaked with rich maroon while its mantle and scapulars were also streaked with a more browny chestnut. The rest of its body plumage was a buffy yellow.
The only common bird of prey was the Marsh Harrier (Circus aeruginosus) and there were considerable numbers of these circling low over the vast reed beds watching for an unwary Purple Moorhen. I saw but a single Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) and on the western shore a large dark eagle. Though it lacked any light spots on secondary wing coverts or white on the rump when put to flight, it was I think a Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga). It was very dark which in my limited experience of this species
20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
is often the case though I have seen a captive specimen with pale golden crown and nape. A large dark eagle with comparatively long narrow wings flew low over the top of a reed bed with the obvious intention of surprising some Dabchicks (Podiceps ruficollis) feeding on the open water in its lea. It made two bold stoops but failed to capture anything. From its large size and comparatively long tail, and active manner I was sure it was an immature Bonelli’s Hawk-Eagle (Nisaetus fasciatus) though its breast was quite brown, thus making positive identification impossible.
The second thrill I had was, the sighting of a magnificent adult, Imperial Eagle, which I believe to be of the European race (Aquila heliaca adalberti). The Imperial Eagle seemed to come from nowhere and it swooped down on the main flock of coots. This caused so much panic that several birds rose into the air whereupon one was easily snatched from above by the eagle’s powerful talons. This action was witnessed by all _ the fishermen in the vicinity who immediately set up a great din, banging their poles upon the water and shouting to frighten the eagle and make it drop its prey. This it did, perhaps by accident, as it swung in a wide arc and again picked the floating bird off the water and made for the nearest shore. As it did so, it was turning its head from side to side as though looking out for any further attacker. One wing of the unfortunate coot was caught in the eagle’s retrices yet it did not in any way affect its powerful and direct flight. But no sooner had it come over the land when a Greater Spotted Eagle with white rump clearly visible also ap- peared from nowhere and swooped upon it. The Imperial Eagle dropped its quarry as it banked upwards to meet this new threat. Both eagles then alighted on the grass close by, where they seemed to crouch glowering at each other. The drama was however not yet ended, for a young boy from the nearest boat waded ashore and ran to where the coot had fallen. As the startled eagles flew away, I saw the boy triumphantly pick up the coot which from its flapping wings was still very much alive.
Having seen a Pallas’s Fishing Eagle (Haliaeetus leucoryphus) in the distance some moments before, I at first assumed that the bird attacking the coots was the same species. Indeed I was able to see clearly that its entire crown and nape were a pale grey. But since Pallas’s Eagles tend to have dirty buff white heads and necks this grey colour even then sur- prised me. Moreover the nape of Imperial Eagles which I have previously encountered were always a golden tawny colour but in all lights and angles this bird seemed to have a grey almost white nape and the most striking feature was the bright white shoulders and leading edge to the wings (lesser secondary wing coverts). When it exposed its full back view it showed no white scapulars of the typical eastern race of A. heliaca, but the white shoulder patches and forward edges of the wings were extremely conspicuous. Its tail appeared a pale grey buff again making me think it
EPILOGUE ON A SIND LAKE 21
must be Haliaeetus, but it lacked any sharply contrasting terminal bar which I had clearly seen half a mile away on the other individual. Its overall plumage was a very deep almost purplish brown and when it rose to meet the Greater Spotted Eagle it was clearly a much larger, and heavier bodied eagle with broader wings. I also recall noticing its deep com- pressed bill with yellow cere and brown not white throat. Many years of bird watching have I hope taught me at least some humility in making identifications—particularly amongst the raptors and I have only de- cided after sifting my ‘ on-the-spot’ written notes, that this eagle could not have been Haliaeetus leucogaster (it was too large and had a dark brown breast) or Icthyophaga ichthyaetus (its tail was plain dirty buff all over without the central feathers being darker). Haliaeetus albicilla (which is not even included in Ripley’s syNopsis) has a wedge shaped tail and in any case lacks a whitish nape and H. leucoryphus has a bluish not yellow cere and white not brown throat. Last summer I was lucky to see a fine adult Imperial Eagle in a small zoo in North Wales which was undoubtedly A. h. heliaca the Asiatic race as it had conspicuous white scapular feathers, but its tail was quite dark grey barred with one or two broad grey brown bands and its wing shoulders were not noticeably light in colour. These are the sort of fascinating puzzles which make the sport of bird watching a perpetual challenge.
Even if my eagle did not conform to the books, it did provide in episodic form perhaps an explanation for the great decline in birdlife on Manchar Lake, for in the unequal struggle with mankind it is the birds that lose.
An annotated list of the Butterflies of Delhi, India
BY
JULIAN P. DONAHUE [ Continued from Vol. 63(2): 269 | LYCAENIDAE
Tarucus nara (Kollar)
The Striped Pierrot is by far the most common of the four Tarucus in Delhi: large numbers of them can be collected by beating a thorny bush, possibly Zizyphus sp., when it is in flower on the Ridge. Only nine of the specimens have come from the Nursery, but the species is common at Tughlakabad. The flying time appears to be divided into two periods, based on the available records: Aug. II to Dec. IV, and Feb. III to May IV. 486 specimens: 326 males (67%), 160 females. The genitalia of all males
have been examined. .
Wynter-Blyth (1957) records T. alteratus Moore, a synonym of T. nara, from Delhi, but he was unable to tell me the original source for this record (pers. comm.). Longstaff (1912) reported collecting T. theo- phrastus in Delhi, 7-12 Nov. 1903, but since this is an African species he probably had T. nara, the most common Delhi Tarucus.
SIZE: Males and females vary from 9mm. in the dry season to 12 mm. in the wet season.
VARIATION: The seasonal forms are strikingly different. Wet season specimens have large and dark markings on the underside, butin dry season specimens these markings become very much reduced and rusty. As Evans (1955) pointed out, the valvae of 7. nara appear to be variable. In Delhi the genitalic variation appears to be associated with the season: dry-season forms have smaller lobes at the apex of the valva than do wet season specimens. An occasional ‘‘ wet season’ form has been collected during the dry season. These specimens are not only marked like wet season specimens, but they have the larger apical lobes on the valva associated with that form. Whether these specimens occur as a result of an undetermined environmental condition, or whether they actually represent a second species can only be ascertained after further study.
[36]
AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 23
DISTRIBUTION: Because of the confusion in the genus prior to its revision by Evans in 1955, records published before that date cannot be heavily relied upon. Further, an examination of the male genitalia (the female genitalia have not been studied) is essential to a proper identi- fication of most species of Tarucus. Evans (1955) lists the following localities in the plains of north-western India and Pakistan that are re- presented by specimens of 7. nara in the British Museum (N.H.): Kutch and Kathiawar, Gujarat; Karachi, Pakistan; “‘ Punjab,’’ Ambala, Pun- jab; and ‘‘ United Provinces.’ The species occurs south to Ceylon, east to Sikkim, and west to the Persian Gulf. There are additional specimens in the MSU collection from Amber, Rajasthan (15 November 1963, RLD) and Ludhiana, Punjab (11-12 Sept. 1961, JPD).
The T. extricatus, and T. alteratus in Wynter-Blyth (1957) are syno- nyms of T. nara.
Tarucus balkanica nigra Bethune-Baker
This rare species would probably have been missed entirely if long series of Tarucus had not been collected. Only four males have been obtained, plus a female that may be this species. As pointed out earlier, it is impossible to positively identify any Tarucus females except those of T. callinara. The genitalia of all four males were examined.
The only specimen from the Nursery was obtained on 3 Nov. 1962 (RCF), 10 mm. The other specimens, all from the Ridge, were taken on 21 Feb. 1963 (RCF), 10.5 mm.; 29 Feb. 1964 (RCF), 10 mm.; and 20 Aug. 1962 (JPD), 11mm. The doubtful female was collected on the Ridge, 14 April 1963 (RCF), 11mm.
Only one nigra was found in a series of about 35 Tarucus collected on the Ridge on 20 Aug. 1962.
Wynter-Blyth (1957) lists Delhi as a locality where this species occurs, but he was unable to tell me the original source for this record (pers. comm.).
DISTRIBUTION: For reasons stated earlier, published records of Tarucus cannot be relied upon, even for this species, the male of which is characterized by having black discal spots UPF. The following plains localities are represented by specimens in the British Museum (N.H.), as reported by Evans (1955): Karachi, Pakistan ; Kutch (the type locality) ; Rajasthan; Punjab; Satna and Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh; and ‘** Dinapore, Bengal’ (=Dinapore, Bihar or Dinajpur, East Pakistan?). It has been collected in the Himalaya from Peshawar and Baluchistan to Kumaon.
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24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
Tarucus indica Evans
An examination of the genitalia of all male Tarucus from Delhi yielded only two specimens of this species, which can be considered the rarest of the four Delhi Tarucus. If any females were collected, they are included in the account of T. nara, since no valid character of the facies could be found to separate the two.
Both specimens were collected on the Ridge by RCF. The first, a well marked specimen, was obtained on 26 Sept. 1963 (13 mm.). The spot at the end of the cell UPF is conspicuous (not inconspicuous as stated by Evans 1955). The second specimen, collected on 29 March 1964 (11 mm.), is worn: the upperside has very little blue, and the markings UPH resemble those of Tarucus females.
DISTRIBUTION: According to Evans (1955), specimens in the British Museum (N.H.) have come from Baluchistan to Kumaon in the Hima- laya, and from Lahore and Karachi east to Bengal and south to Madras in peninsular India. Three males from Meerut, U.P. (35 miles NE. of Delhi), are the records nearest Delhi. The only other specimens in the MSU collection are three males from Ludhiana, Punjab, 12 Sept. 1961 (JPD).
Tarucus callinara Butler
The Spotted Pierrot is the only Delhi Tarucus whose female can be identified with a reasonable degree of certainty. It has been collected both on the Ridge and in the Nursery at scattered times throughout the year: Feb. I, March II, April II, Aug. I & II, Sept. I, Nov. III, and Dec. I & IV. 15 specimens: 5 males (33%), 10 females.
SIZE: The males and females vary from 9 mm. (Feb., Dec.) to 12 mm. (a Sept. 9) and 13 mm. (a Nov. o).
DISTRIBUTION: Recorded from virtually throughout India by Evans (1955). He also records one male and six females from Delhi: T. G. Howarth and G. E. Tite of the British Museum (N.H.) found a male and three females in the B.M. collection, which are probably the speci- mens referred to by Evans. They are labelled “‘N. India, Delhi, Nov. 1932,’ [B.M. No. 1935-7].
Syntarucus plinius (Fabricius)
The Zebra Blue occurs in all habitats, but appears to be much more common in the Nursery. It is relatively rare during the dry season, but is especially abundant in November. It flies from Aug. IV to Jan. ITI, and Feb. IV to May IV. 123 specimens; 88 males (72%), 35 females,
[38]
AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 25
sizE: Males and females vary in size throughout the year, from 11 mm. to 13 mm. 3
DISTRIBUTION : This species is common throughout India and Pakistan (Cantlie 1962), and has been recorded on all sides of Delhi.
Azanus ubaldus (Cramer)
Only 12 specimens of the Bright Babul Blue have been examined. In the Nursery, a female was collected on 3 Nov. 1962, and males were collected on 17 and 22 Nov. 1962 (all by RCF). On the Ridge, a female was collected on 9 Aug. 1962 (JPD), five females on 20 Aug. 1962 (JPD), two males on 3 Nov. 1962 (RCF), and a male was collected there on 1 Dec. 1962 (RCF).
SIZE: Both sexes range from 9 mm. to 11 mm.
DISTRIBUTION: This species is found in India west to West Pakistan (Cantlie 1962). It has been recorded on all sides of Delhi.
Azanus uranus Butler
The Dull Babul Blue is the most common Azanus in Delhi. Although it is most common on the Ridge, five specimens have been collected in the Nursery, and one male was collected at the Najafgarh Jheel (RLD). It has only been collected from Nov. I to Dec. IV. 45 specimens: 32 males (71%), 13 females.
SIZE: Males and females vary from 8 mm. to 11 mm.
DISTRIBUTION: Reportedly common throughout India and Pakistan (Cantlie 1962).
Azanus jesous gamra (Lederer)
RCF has collected the only 10 specimens known from Delhi. They were all collected on the Ridge, as follows: two males and two females on 18 Nov. 1962, one male on 24 Nov. 1962, three males and a female on 1 Dec. 1962, and a male on 22 Dec. 1962.
These butterflies should be looked for near Acacia spp., for the flowers are fed upon by the larvae (Wynter-Blyth 1957).
sizz: The males range from 9 mm. to 11 mm., while the females vary from 10 mm. to 12 mm.
DISTRIBUTION: The African Babul Blue is found throughout the more arid portions of India and West Pakistan (Cantlie 1962; Wynter- Blyth 1957), but de Rhé-Philipe (1902) failed to include it in the Lucknow
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26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
list. MacPherson (1927) did not collect it in Jodhpur, nor did de Rhé- Philipe (1917) record it in Lahore. The published records nearest Delhi appear to be those of Aldrich (1946) in Kaira District, Gujarat, and Mosse (1929) in Kathiawar, to the south-west. However, there are speci- mens in the MSU collection from Siliserh, Rajasthan (19 Nov. 1963, RLD), and Amber, Rajasthan (15 Nov. 1963, RLD).
Chilades laius laius (Cramer)
The Lime Blue occurs sparingly in Delhi, and should be looked for in the vicinity of its foodplant, Citrus (Bell 1918). It has been seen or col- lected from July IV to Dec. IV (no October records) in the Nursery. One female was collected on the Ridge, Nov. I. 23 specimens: 13 males (57%), 10 females.
Longstaff (1912) collected this species in Delhi, 7-12 Nov. 1903.
The absence of tails is the major character that differentiates this species from Euchrysops pandava pandava (Horsfield), although the larvae reportedly have different foodplants: E. pandava feeds on cycads, according to Swinhoe (1910-1911). No significant differences were found when the genitalia of C. laius were compared with the genitalia of E. p. pandava from Karwar, Mysore and Darjeeling, West Bengal. The genitalia of both species resemble fig. 146 (E. pandava) in Corbet & Pendlebury (1956), except that the vinculum is narrower than they have drawn it. The valva of E. pandava has also been figured by Corbet (1941). The congeneric, or even conspecific, status of these two butterflies should be investigated.
SIZE: The males vary from 11 mm. to 13 mm., while the females range from 9 mm. (14 Nov. 1963, RLD) to 14 mm. (in August and September).
OVIPOSITION: On 19. Sept. 1961 two females were observed flying around a Citrus bush. At least one of them laid an egg on the bush.
On 26 July 1961 a female was observed flying around another Citrus bush. Eventually she landed on an irregular knob in the axil of a leaf and deposited an egg, rubbing her hind wings together as she did . so. This process was repeated several times before I collected several of the twigs on which eggs had been laid. An examination of the irregula- rities on which the eggs had been deposited revealed that they were small clusters of aphids (Homoptera: Aphidae). The eggs failed to hatch, so it could not be determined whether the larvae would. have fed on the Citrus (the recorded foodplant) or on the aphids. It appears that carni- vorous behaviour has never been reported for this species (Clark 1926),
[40]
AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 27
although the larvae are attended by ants (Swinhoe 1905-1910; de Rhé- Philipe 1902).
DISTRIBUTION: The Lime Blue occurs throughout India (Cantlie 1962; Wynter-Blyth 1957), west to Jodhpur? (MacPherson 1927), Lahore (de Rhé-Philipe 1917), and Kathiawar (Mosse 1929).
Freyeria trochilus putli (K ollar)
The Grass Jewel is the smallest Delhi butterfly. It has been recorded from July IV to Dec. IV, and Feb. I. Although it is usually found in the Nursery, it has been collected at Tughlakabad and onthe Ridge (10, Dec. I). 42 specimens: 27 males (64%), 13 females, 2 unsexed.
SIZE: Males and females vary from 6 mm. to 9 mm.
DISTRIBUTION: This subspecies, which does not have prominently orange-crowned marginal spots on the hindwing, occurs from south to north-east India. The nominate subspecies is found in West Pakistan (Cantlie 1962). One or two of the Delhi specimens have prominently orange-crowned marginal spots, thus indicating a tendency towards the Pakistan subspecies. The Grass Jewel has been recorded on all sides of Delhi.
Zizina otis indica (Murray)
The Lesser Grass Blue is common in Delhi, though it is not collected as frequently as Zizeeria maha and Z. knysna. Only two specimens have been collected during the monsoon (July IV, Aug. II); the rest have been collected from Nov. I to Feb. I and March IV to May III. It is most common in November and December. Systematic collecting would probably yield specimens from throughout the year. 74 specimens: 39 males (53%), 35 females.
SIZE: Males and females range from 8 mm. to 1! mm.
DISTRIBUTION: This subspecies occurs in peninsular India north to Sikkim and west to West Pakistan (Cantlie 1962). A second subspecies, Z. otis sangra (Moore), occurs from Sikkim and West Bengal east. The genitalic differences between the two “‘ subspecies ’’ have been noted by previous workers, who have retained the subspecific status of the two populations. The differences between the two, illustrated by Chapman (1910), would appear to be significant enough to warrant the recognition of two distinct species.
This butterfly has been recorded from Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe 1902) and Lahore (de Rhé-Philipe 1917), but not from Jodhpur (Mac- Pherson 1927). I have also collected it in Ludhiana, Punjab (11-12 Sept.
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28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
1961) and 15 miles south of Saharanpur, U.P. (8-9 May 1961). There are additional specimens in the MSU collection from Aligarh, U.P. (17 Nov. 1962 and 7 April 1964, RLD).
Zizeeria maha maha (Kollar)
Although the males of the Pale Grass Blue can be easily separated from males of Z. knysna, the females of the two species tend to overlap in size so that their identification becomes difficult. A good character to separate the two, in Delhi, is the arrangement of the discal spots UNF. In maha the spots in spaces 3, 4, and 5 are similar in shape, and the distal edges are more or less in line. In knysna the spot in space 4 is usually lengthened and oblique, and is shifted laterad from a line drawn through the spots in spaces 3 and 5.
This species has been recorded throughout the year, both on the Ridge and in the Nursery. It is most common in March and April, and again from late July through November. 223 specimens: 178 males (80%), 45 females.
SIZE: Males and females range from 10 mm. to 13 mm.
VARIATION: The seasonal forms are well-marked. The WSF occurs from July III to Oct. I, in which the males have the marginal band on the upperside much wider than in dry season specimens, accompanied by dark suffusion over the greater part of both wings. The females are dark brown above, with at most a trace of the basal blue. The DSF occurs during the remainder of the year (Oct. IV to June III), in which the males are pale lilac blue above, with narrow brown borders on both wings, and no suffusion. The DSF females have a varying amount of blue on the upperside—often as much as in a wet season male.
DISTRIBUTION: This subspecies 1s common from West Pakistan east to Assam and south to “‘ Central India’? (Cantlie 1962). Common in Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe 1902) and Lahore (de Rhé-Philipe 1917), but MacPherson (1927) only records afew specimens from Udaipur, southern Rajasthan, and none from Jodhpur. There are, however, additional specimens in the MSU collection from Jaipur, Rajasthan (16-17 Nov. 1963, RLD), 170 miles ENE. of Jodhpur.
Zizeeria knysna karsandra (Moore)
The Dark Grass Blue is the most common of the Delhi grass blues.
It occurs in the Nursery throughout the year, and is common on the
Ridge from March IV to April IV, and again in November and December.
It is most common in the Nursery during and after the monsoon. 463 [42]
AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 29
specimens: 269 males (58%), 194 females. The sex ratio of field-collected specimens is apparently subject to great variation: of 76 specimens col- lected April II, only 38% were males, but of 67 specimens collected Aug. IV, 63% were males. A copulating pair was collected on 25 Sept. 1961 (JPD).
SIZE: Males and females range from 8 mm. to 11 mm.
DISTRIBUTION: This species is common throughout West Pakistan and India (Cantlie 1962; Wynter-Blyth 1957). Only a few specimens were collected in Lucknow by de Rhé-Philipe (1902), but it has been reported as common in Lahore (de Rhé-Philipe 1917) and Jodhpur (MacPherson 1927).
Zizula hylax (Fabricius)
This tiny butterfly has long been known as Z. gaika (Trimen), but Corbet (1940) has shown that the Fabrician name has priority. It is the least common of the Delhi grass blues, and is usually collected as single specimens from March IV to Dec. IV (no records for January, February, May, June, September, or October). Although the majority of specimens has been collected in the Nursery, three have been collected on the Ridge (March IV, Aug. III, Dec. IV), and five specimens were collected at Tughlakabad on 29 Sept. 1961 (JPD), indicating that it may be locally common during and after the monsoon. 23 specimens: 14 males (61%), 9 females.
° SIZE: Males and females range from 8 mm. to 11 mm.
DISTRIBUTION: The Tiny Grass Blue occurs throughout India and Pakistan (Cantlie 1962; Wynter-Blyth 1957) and has been recorded on all sides of Delhi.
Euchrysops cnejus (Fabricius)
The Gram Blue has been found in the Nursery, on the Ridge, and at Tughlakabad. It flies from Aug. IV to Sept. IV, Nov. I to Dec. I, and Feb. III to March IT. It has been most frequently collected in late Febru- ary, early March, and early November. Longstaff (1912) collected it in Delhi, 7-12 Nov. 1903.
In the process of examining the genitalia of all males, it was found that the uncus of this species is quite different from that of the other two Euchrysops in India. 33 specimens: 25 males (76%), 8 females.
SIZE: Males and females range from 9 mm. to 15 mm., with the smaller specimens generally occurring during the dry season. [43]
30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
DISTRIBUTION: This species is common throughout India and Pakis- tan (Cantlie 1962). It has been recorded from Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe 1902) and Jodhpur (MacPherson 1927), but not from Lahore (de Rhé- Philipe 1917).
Euchrysops parrhasius parrhasius (Fabricius)
The Small Cupid has long been known as E. contracta (Butler), but Corbet (1941) has shown that the Hesperia parrhasius of Fabricius actually refers to this species rather than to an Everes (the former Everes parrha- sius parrhasius of south India is now known as Everes lacturnus syntala Cantlie). It occurs in all Delhi habitats, from July III to Nov. IV, Dec. IV, Jan. IV, and from March IV to May IV (not yet recorded in Feb. or June). 91 specimens: 62 males (68%), 29 females.
SIZE: Males and females vary from 9 mm. to 12 mm.
VARIATION: Males occurring from Nov. I to March IV are darker blue above than are males flying at other times. Females flying during the same period have a large amount of blue on the upperside, as opposed to July females, for example, which have only a few basal blue scales. The underside of these dry season specimens is very dusky, and the markings are greatly suffused and indistinct. The spot in space lc UNH is smaller than the spot in space 2, and a light postdiscal band is well- developed.
The dry season specimens appear to fit the description of E. pandava minuta Evans, a subspecies which is supposed to occur in Sind, Punjab, Baluchistan, and the N.W. Frontier (Cantlie 1962). But the genitalia of all males were examined and compared with the genitalia of specimens of E. pandava pandava (Horsfield) in the MSU collection from Karwar, Mysore and Darjeeling, West Bengal. No Delhi specimen had genitalia conforming to E. pandava, although it was noted that the geni- talia of E. pandava are virtually identical to those of Chilades laius, q.v.
Corbet (1941) figures the valvae of Euchrysops pandava, E. parrhasius parrhasius, E. cnejus, and what he calls E. parrhasius minuta Evans. Un- fortunately, the apparent transfer of minuta from E. pandava to E. par- rhasius was not discussed, and no indication was given of the authority for the change.
Mr. G. E. Tite of the British Museum (Natural History) has been kind enough to examine Evans’s type of minuta, and he informs me (pers. comm.) that minuta and parrhasius are one and the same species, thus confirming Corbet’s (1941) observations. It appears, therefore, that minuta Evans only refers to the dry season form of Euchrysops parrhasius parrhasius (Fabricius), and is thus a NEW SYNONYM.
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AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 31
DISTRIBUTION: E. parrhasius parrhasius occurs from south India north to Nepal, west to Sind, Punjab, Baluchistan, and the N.W. Frontier (Cantlie 1962). It has not been recorded from Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe 1902) or Lahore (de Rhé-Philipe 1917), although it has been recorded from Jodhpur (MacPherson 1927) and Kanpur, U.P. (Sanders 1955).
Catochrysops strabo strabo (Fabricius)
The Forget-Me-Not appears to be locally common but generally rare in Delhi. It occurs more or less throughout the year in all habitats: Jan. IV, March III & IV, May I & IV, Aug. IV, Sept. IV, and Nov. I to IV. The only place where it was found to be common was at Tughlakabad, where 27 males (no females) were collected on 29 Sept. 1961 (JPD). At other times in other localities only one or two specimens have been col- lected at any one time. 43 specimens: 37 males (86%), 6 females.
SIZE: Males and females vary from 13 mm. to 16 mm.
DISTRIBUTION: This subspecies is common throughout peninsular India (Wynter-Blyth 1957; Cantlie 1962; Tite 1959). It has been recorded in Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe 1902) and Jodhpur (MacPherson 1927), but not in Lahore (de Rhé-Philipe 1917). There are additional specimens in the MSU collection from Ludhiana, Punjab (11-12 Sept. 1961, JPD) and Jaipur, Rajasthan (16 Nov. 1963, RLD).
Lampides boeticus (Linnaeus)
The Peablue is another of the most common Delhi butterflies. It has been recorded in all habitats throughout the year, except in the months of July and September. It appears to be most abundant from February to April and again in November, but it may have been heavily collected in the dry season when many species are not common, and may have been neglected for more desirable species during the monsoon, when more butterflies are flying. 312 specimens: 163 males (52%), 149 females.
SIZE: Males and females vary from 12 mm. in the dry season to 17 mm. after the monsoon.
DISTRIBUTION: This ubiquitous species is common throughout India and Pakistan (Cantlie 1962).
Prosotas nora ardates (Moore)
Only three males of the Common Lineblue have been examined, all of which were collected in Delhi by Leela R. Menon in October 1962 (11 mm.). The genitalia of all three specimens were dissected and com- pared with figures in Tite (1963), which should be consulted for infor- mation concerning the removal of this species from Nacaduba.
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a2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 64 (1)
DISTRIBUTION: This subspecies occurs in Ceylon and throughout West Pakistan and India to Burma (Cantlie 1962; Wynter-Blyth 1957). It has not been collected in Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe 1902), Sind (Menesse 1950), or Lahore (de Rhé-Philipe 1917), but MacPherson (1927) found it in Jodhpur, and Mosse (1929) collected it in Rajkot, Kathiawar, in December 1927. The foodplant is reported to be Acacia caesia (Wynter- Blyth 1957), so these trees should be more closely examined in Delhi.
Spindasis vulcanus vulcanus (Fabricius)
Only two males of the Common Silverline have been collected in Delhi. One was obtained by RLD in the Nursery on 28 Oct. 1962 (11 mm.), and the other was collected by RCF on the Ridge, 21 Feb. 1963 (12.5 mm.). The male genitalia of both this and the following species were examined and compared with the figures in Cantlie (1963).
DISTRIBUTION: This subspecies occurs throughout India and West Pakistan, except in the eastern Himalaya and Assam (Cantlie 1962; Wynter-Blyth 1957). It has been recorded from Lucknow (de Rhe- Philipe 1902), but not from Jodhpur (MacPherson 1927) or Lahore (de Rhé-Philipe 1917).
Only eleven specimens of the Common Shot Silverline have been collected. Three males were collected in Delhi by Leela R. Menon in November 1962, while the rest of the specimens were collected on the Ridge: a male on 24 Feb. 1963, two males on 26 Feb. 1963, one male on 29 Feb. 1964, two males and a female on 11 March 1963 (all by RCF), and a female on 3 July 1962 (JPD).
SIZE: The males range from 12 mm. to 14 mm., while the females are 13 mm. and 14 mm.
DISTRIBUTION: This subspecies occurs locally throughout West Pakistan and India (Cantlie 1962; Wynter-Blyth 1957), but the only published record near Delhi is from Faizabad, U.P. (de Rhé-Philipe 1902).
Rapala iarbus (Fabricius) ssp.
Only four Delhi specimens of the Indian Red Flash, formerly known as R. melampus (Cramer), have been examined. Two males were collected in Delhi in November 1962 by Miss Nirmala (16 mm., 18 mm.), one male was collected in Delhi in December 1962 by Venu (17 mm.), and a female was collected in the Nursery by JPD on 29 May 1962 (15 mm.). This last specimen was collected as it sat on a Citrus leaf in the shade.
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AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 33
According to Cantlie (1962) the prominent orange-crowned spot in space 2 UNH of the Delhi specimens is indicative of R. i. iarbus, which presumably occurs from Nepal to Burma, but the paucity of orange scales in the tornal lobe UPH would indicate R. i. sorya (Kollar), which reportedly occurs from south India to Murree, Nepal, and Calcutta, and in Amritsar and Kanpur. Since the range of the latter subspecies encom- passes Delhi, these specimens are probably referable to Rapala iarbus sorya (Kollar).
DISTRIBUTION: In addition to the ranges given above, specimens have been collected on Mount Abu (MacPherson 1927), in Kutch (Nurse 1899), and in Kathiawar (Mosse 1929). Menesse (1950) does not report its presence in Sind. Delhi appears to be on the western edge of the range of this species, at the latitude of Delhi.
LYCAENIDAE Sp.
One male lycaenid was found in the Delhi material, labelled “‘ Nur-
sery, New Delhi, 26 Aug. 1961, JPD,’’ which does not appear to be of Indian origin. Mr. G. E. Tite of the British Museum (N.H.) was not able to identify it because of its worn condition. Although anything is possible in biology, it is perhaps best to consider that this specimen was mislabelled during preparation.
NYMPHALIDAE Charaxes fabius fabius (Fabricius)
The Black Rajah is an uncommon species in India, and Wynter- Blyth (1957) states that it has been recorded from Delhi, although he was unable to tell me the original source for this record (pers. comm.). No specimens or further records have been located, although the food- plant, tamarind (Tamarindus indica), occurs in Delhi.
DISTRIBUTION: According to Evans (1927) this subspecies is found in peninsular India north to Kangra and Sikkim in the Himalaya. In the plains of north-western India it has been recorded from Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe 1902), Kathiawar (Mosse 1929), and in Kaira District (Aldrich 1946). Delhi appears to be on the western edge of the known, range of this species, which should be looked for near tamarind, at sugar, and on exuding tree sap.
Euthalia nais (Forster)
The only Delhi specimen known is in the I.A.R.I. collection, caught by Dr. M. G. Ramdas Menon on 2 April 1958.
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34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
DISTRIBUTION: The Baronet is locally common from Dehra Dun to Sikkim, south throughout peninsular India to Ceylon (Evans 1932, Wynter-Blyth 1957). South of Dehra Dun, the only record near Delhi is from Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe 1902), where only one specimen (<") was collected in March. Delhi is apparently the westernmost record for the species at this latitude.
Pseudergolis wedah (Kollar)
A single specimen in the I.A.R.I. collection, caught by Dr. M. G. Ramdas Menon, is the only known specimen from Delhi.
DISTRIBUTION: The Tabby is a Himalayan species, occurring from Kulu to Assam and Burma (Evans 1932; Wynter-Blyth 1957), and, since it has apparently not been previously reported south of the Himalaya, its occurrence in Delhi is exceptional and should be verified with further specimens.
Hypolimnas misippus (Linnaeus)
The Danaid Eggfly is a widespread species whose female mimics all three forms of Danaus chrysippus found in India. The typical female form, which is extremely difficult to distinguish from D. chrysippus in the field, is the only form which has been collected in Delhi. It is perhaps only a matter of time before the other two, more rare, forms are found. The species has been collected in the Nursery, on the Ridge, and at Tughla- kabad, from June IV to Sept. IV, and Nov. I. 25 specimens: 17 males (68%), 8 females.
SIZE: o'o' 26 mm. (3 Nov. 1963, RLD) to 34 mm.(2 specimens, 28 Aug. 1961, JPD). 9 ? 36 mm. (30 June and 29 Sept. 1961, JPD) to 41 mm. (4 Nov. 1961, JPD).
DISTRIBUTION: This butterfly occurs throughout India (Wynter- Blyth 1957), and has been recorded on all sides of Delhi. Interestingly, de Rhé-Philipe (1917) found this species less common than H. bolina in Lahore, while the converse is true in Delhi.
Hypolimnas bolina bolina (Linnaeus)
Although the Great Eggfly is common in many parts of India, it is rare in Delhi. Only four females have been collected in the Nursery: 15 July 1962 (37 mm.), 20 July 1962 (43 mm.), 9 Aug. 1962 (39 mm.), and 21 Sept. 1961 (42 mm.). These specimens are small compared with females from south India. No males have ever been seen by the author, either in Delhi or elsewhere in India.
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AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 35
DISTRIBUTION: This species is reportedly common throughout India (Evans 1932; Wynter-Blyth 1957). It is common in Lucknow (de Rhé- Philipe 1902), Lahore (de Rhé-Philipe 1917), Kutch (Nurse 1899), and Kathiawar (Mosse 1929), while it is fairly common in Amritsar (Sevasto- pulo 1948), uncommon in Jodhpur (MacPherson 1927), and very rare or extirpated in Karachi (Swinhoe 1887; Menesse 1950), where it has not been collected since 1886.
Precis lintingensis lintingensis (Osbeck)
The Yellow Pansy appears to be the least common Precis in Delhi. It is usually encountered in the Nursery, although a few specimens have been taken at Tughlakabad and on the Ridge. It has been collected from July III to Sept. IV, Nov. I to Jan. III, and on March IV and May IV. 26 specimens: 19 males (73%), 7 females.
Corbet (1945) has shown that Papilio lintingensis Osbeck, 1765, has priority over the well-known Papilio hierta of Fabricius, 1798. N. D. Riley has petitioned the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature [Bull. Zool. Nomencl. 22: 248-249, 1965; application No. Z. N. (S.) 1708] to use its plenary powers to suppress the name lintingensis so that hierta will once again be available for this species.
SIZE: o'o' 20 mm. (10 Nov. 1962, RCF) to 25 mm. (3 Nov. 1963, RLD). 9 ¢ 24mm. (several, July & Nov.) to 27 mm. (9 Aug. 1962, JPD).
VARIATION : The wet season form, which has a darker ground colour UNH than the dry season form, occurs from July III to Sept. IV.
DISTRIBUTION : This species is very common throughout India (Wyn- ter-Blyth 1957), and has been recorded on all sides of Delhi.
Precis orithya swinhoei (Butler)
The Blue Pansy is the most common Delhi Precis. It occurs in all habitats throughout the year except in June and early July, for which there are no records. It is most abundant during and after the monsoon, especially in the Nursery. A tattered male and a fresh female were col- lected in copula on 3 March 1962, and a female was collected at light on 17 November 1961 (Donahue 1962b). 118 specimens: 64 males (54%), 54 females.
SIZE: o'o@ 17 mm. (2 Dec. 1962, 3 Feb. 1963, RCF) to 25 mm. (3 Nov. 1962, RCF). 9 ¢ 18 mm. (21 Feb. 1963, RCF) to 26 mm. (24 July and 8 Sept. 1961, JPD). The smallest specimens are as small as, or smaller than, the record “‘ dwarf’? reported by Crawford (1930), which had an *“ expanse ”’ of 36 mm. (sex not stated).
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36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
VARIATION: The wet season form, with two prominent ocelli UNH, has been collected from July II to Oct. I. Traces of the ocelli reappear in specimens from March to May, reminiscent of the appearance of ocelli in April and May specimens of Precis almana.
DISTRIBUTION: The Blue Pansy occurs throughout India (Wynter- Blyth 1957), and has been recorded on all sides of Delhi.
Precis lemonias lemonias (Linnaeus)
Evans (1932) recognized three subspecies of the Lemon Pansy in the Indian subregion: P. /. vaisya Fruhstorfer, from Ceylon and south and central India; P. /. persicaria Fruhstorfer, from Kashmir to Kumaon; and P. 1. lemonias (Linnaeus), from Sikkim to Burma. Fruhstorfer’s (1912) original descriptions of the first two “‘ subspecies ’’ indicate that these taxa as he knew them occurred in widely-scattered localities, certainly not in keeping with the modern concept of a subspecies; per- sicaria, in fact, was described as a form with a peach-coloured underside. Because I have been unable to find any constant geographical variation in a large series of this species from throughout India, and because the characterizations of the subspecies in Evans (1932) are inadequate, I have chosen to refer to the entire Indian population of this variable species as Precis lemonias lemonias (Linnaeus). Since this species occurs east to the Philippines (Fruhstorfer 1912), there is a good possibility that, some- where within its range, this species may have recognizable subspecies.
The Lemon Pansy occurs in all habitats, but is more frequently collected in the Nursery. It is most abundant during and after the mon- soon, but single specimens may be encountered during the winter and dry season. It has been recorded from June IV to Jan. I, and Feb. IV to April II (the seven specimens collected in the latter period are all males). 82 specimens: 53 males (65%), 29 females.
Longstaff (1912) wrote that from 7-12 Nov. 1903 this species “‘... appeared to be rather fond of shade; they settled upon the ground in preference to flowers, and then were hard to see.”
SIZE: gigi 22 mm. (several, March II and III, June IV) to 27 mm. (29 Aug. 1961, JPD). 9 9 21.5 mm. (25 Dec. 1962, RCF) to 29 mm. (21 Sept. 1961, JPD).
VARIATION: The wet season form, which has a well-marked pattern with ocelli UNH, occurs from June IV to Oct. I. The dry season form has the pattern and ocelli reduced UNH and has a falcate apex on the fore- wing.
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AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 3h
DISTRIBUTION: This species occurs in the Himalaya from Kashmir to Assam and Burma, in Ceylon and on the Deccan Plateau, and in Sau- rashtra (Wynter-Blyth 1957)—a range which circumvents Delhi. How- ever, it is also common in Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe 1902), Jodhpur and Mount Abu (MacPherson 1927), and Lahore (de Rhé-Philipe 1917). It has even been collected in Karachi (Swinhoe 1887), and elsewhere in Sind (Menesse 1950), where it is apparently very cyclic in its abundance.
Precis almana almana (Linnaeus)
The Peacock Pansy has been collected in the Nursery every month except February. It is most common during and after the monsoon, from mid-July through December. Only one specimen, a male, has been collected on the Ridge. 61 specimens: 43 males (70%), 18 females.
SIZE: gigi 24 mm. (3 specimens, from March IV, May IV, and Dec. IV) to 28 mm. (25 Sept. 1961, JPD). 9 ¢ 22 mm. (15 March 1964, RLD) to 29 mm. (31 July 1962, JPD).
VARIATION: The seasonal forms are well-marked. The DSF has the ** dead-leaf ’’ pattern on the underside, where the ocelli are absent UNH, the hindwing tornus is produced, and the forewing apex is falcate. The WSF has prominent ocelli UNH, a rounded tornus on the hindwing, and a rounded apex on the forewing. This is another of the Delhi butter- flies in which the “‘ wet season ”’ form begins flying before the wet season begins. The WSF has been collected April II and May IV to Nov. II. The DSF flies from Sept. IV to March IV, with both forms occurring from Sept. IV to Nov. II.
DISTRIBUTION : The Peacock Pansy occurs throughout India (Wynter- Blyth 1957), and has been recorded on all sides of Delhi.
Vanessa cardui (Linnaeus)
Only two specimens of this cosmopolitan species have been collected in Delhi. I collected a male on 20 Jan. 1962, and RCF obtained a female on 23 March 1963. Both specimens came from the Nursery, and the forewing of both is 27 mm. long.
DISTRIBUTION: The Painted Lady occurs throughout India (Evans 1932; Wynter-Blyth 1957), and usually occurs during the fall and winter on the plains of northern India. It appears to be less common in the desert tracts west of Delhi. Presumably it ‘“‘ migrates ”’ to Delhi from the Himalaya, so it may be more abundant in some years than in others.
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38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
Argynnis hyperbius hyperbius (Johannsen)
Only two specimens of the Indian Fritillary have been collected in Delhi: I collected a perfect male (36 mm.) as it visited wildflowers in the Nursery on 13 April 1962, and RCF collected a second male (34 mm.) on the Ridge, 27 March 1964.
DISTRIBUTION: The appearance of this Himalayan species in Delhi came as a surprise. It is resident on Mount Abu (Evans 1932 ; MacPherson 1927; Wynter-Blyth 1957) and in the Himalaya (Evans 1932; Wynter- Blyth 1957), where the larva feeds on violets. Most authors have assumed that this butterfly occasionally strays from the hills onto the plains, but de Rhé-Philipe (1902) collected specimens from late September to March and found the larvae feeding on Lobelia and potted violets in Lucknow, while Longstaff (1912) collected a female there 24-25 Nov. 1903. Robson — (1893) found and reared the larvae on cultivated pansies (Viola sp.) in Bankipore, Bihar (near Patna), and Sanders (1955) reared adults from larvae he found on pansies in his garden in Kanpur, U.P.
Other records from the plains include specimens taken during the winter in Agra, U.P. (de Niceville 1886) and a single male taken and another seen in Feb. 1929 at Kundla, west of Bhavnagar, Gujarat by Mosse (1929), who has also seen several females during the monsoon at Sadra, 30 miles north of Ahmedabad, Gujarat. Swinhoe (quoted in Moore 1899-1900) reportedly took several specimens in Bombay in 1877, but it has apparently not been seen there since.
A careful search may show the species to be established in Delhi, since the larvae could feed on the pansies which are cultivated there during the winter,
Phalanta phalantha phalantha (Drury)
The Common Leopard is never abundant in Delhi. The females occur on the Ridge and in the Nursery with approximately equal fre- quency, but only one of the males has been collected in the Nursery. It flies during and after the monsoon, from July II to Aug. IV, and Nov. ITI and IV. 28 specimens: 15 males (54%), 13 females.
SIZE: oo" 19 mm. (18 Nov. 1962, RCF) to 28 mm. (9 Aug. 1962, JPD; 18 Nov. 1962, RCF). 2 225 mm. (28 Aug. 1961, JPD) to 31 mm. (28 July 1961; 5 Aug. 1962, JPD).
VARIATION : The females are generally larger and more heavily marked than the males. |
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AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 39
DISTRIBUTION: This species is common throughout India (Wynter- Blyth 1957), and has been recorded on all sides of Delhi. See Fox (1964) for the latest treatment of the genus, formerly known as Afella.
Ergolis merione tapestrina Moore
The only record of the Common Castor from Delhi is a specimen in the I.A.R.I. collection, caught by Dr. M. G. Ramdas Menon.
DISTRIBUTION: This subspecies occurs from the Central Provinces to Orissa, and Kashmir to Kumaon (Evans 1927). The only other record near Delhi is from Lucknow, where de Rhé-Philipe (1902) saw two specimens in October.
The adults should be looked for near castor plants (Tragia spp.), the larval foodplant, some of which grow in the Nursery and probably else- where in Delhi.
DANAIDAE Danaus chrysippus chrysippus (Linnaeus)
The Plain Tiger is one of the most common and conspicuous butter- flies in Delhi, occurring throughout the year in all habitats, although it is uncommon in January, February, May, and June. 317 specimens: 199 males (63%), 118 females.
Longstaff (1912) found this species common in Delhi, 7-12 Nov. 1903.
Nine copulating pairs have been collected, from March IV to Nov. I (Table 4). With one major exception (1 Nov. 1962), the copulating males are almost the same size as, or slightly larger than, the females.
TABLE 4
RECORDS OF COPULATING PAIRS OF Danaus chrysippus
Forewing Length (mm.)
Date Collector fof e)
24 March 1963 .. a: ne 35 30 RLD 28 July 1961 .. on %, Re: 33 34 JPD 11 Aug. 1962 .. a: £63 ¥ 35 33 RLD 28 Aug. 1961 .. ae a ag 40 38 JPD ZISept. 1963, .«., wig nity .e 37 34 RCF 25 Sept. 1961 .. a: s i 37 37 JPD
1 Nov. 1962 .. fe - sis 30 40 RLD
3 Nov. 1962 .. nie ve py 39 36 RCF
4Nov. 1961 .. i ee L 3 42 35 JPD
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40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
A photograph taken of a copulating pair in November 1961 clearly shows that the male is doing the transporting, while the female is passive. To the contrary, Pronin (1964) observed that the female of D. plexippus was the transporter during the flight of a copulating pair in California.
Danaus chrysippus has been attracted to lights in New Delhi (Donahue 19625).
SIZE: o'o' 26 mm. (9 May 1962, JPD) to 42 mm. (13 April 1962, JPD). 2 925 mm. (31 March 1963, RCF) to 40 mm. (several). ‘‘ Dwarf” specimens are relatively frequent. Both the male and female dwarfs indicated above are smaller than the dwarf reported by Crawford (1930), which had an “expanse ”’ of 58 mm. A dwarf from Lucknow has been reported with an “ expanse ”’ of “ not more than 2.1 inches ” [=53 mm.] (de Rhé-Philipe 1902).
VARIATION: Of the two most distinctive forms of this species, ‘‘ dorip- pus ” (Klug) and “ alcippoides ”’ Moore, only the latter has been collected in Delhi—a fresh male collected in the Nursery on 23 March 1963 (41 mm.) by RCF. Elsewhere in the Indian subregion the “ alcippoides ”’ form has been recorded from Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe 1902); Lahore (de Rhé-Philipe 1917); Bhavnagar, Kathiawar (Mosse 1929); Karachi, Pakistan (Swinhoe 1887), and elsewhere in Sind (Menesse 1950) ; Calcutta (Percy-Lancaster 1949); and Campbellpore, West Pakistan (Butler 1886). In addition to some of the localities above, Moore (1890-1892) records its occurrence in Nepal; Nurpur, W. Pakistan ; Deesa, Gujarat ; Neemuch, Panghur (near Neemuch), and Mhow, Madhya Pradesh. Quoting de Nicéville (Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 1885, p. 40), Moore also adds Faizabad, U.P.; Bholahat, Malda District, West Bengal; and Khurda, Orissa, to the list of localities where the “ alcippoides ’’ form has been collected.
The more frequent ‘‘ dorippus”’ form has been recorded from a number of arid localities in India (Donahue 1962a), and it is probably only a matter of time before a specimen is collected in Delhi.
DISTRIBUTION: The Plain Tiger is very common throughout India (Talbot 1947; Wynter-Blyth 1957), and the arid plains of north-western India are no exception.
Danaus genutia (Cramer)
Although Talbot (1947) refers to this species as D. plexippus plexippus (Linnaeus), Cramer’s name is in general use in the Orient, and it is em- ployed here to differentiate this species from the American species which Western taxonomists call D. plexippus. This butterfly has only been
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AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 41
recorded during the monsoon season, July II to Sept. II, from both the Nursery and the Ridge. A copulating pair was collected on 5 August 1962 (JPD). 25 specimens: 14 males (56%), 11 females.
SIZE: o'o' 37 mm. (5 Aug. 1962, JPD) to 46 mm. (5 Aug. 1962, 26 Aug. 1961, JPD).2? 236 mm. (14 Aug. 1962, JPD) to 46 mm. (21 July 1962, JPD).
DISTRIBUTION : The Common Tiger occurs throughout India (Talbot 1947; Wynter-Blyth 1957). It has been recorded during the monsoon season from other localities on all sides of Delhi.
Danaus limniace leopardus (Butler)
The Blue Tiger is rare in Delhi—only two males have been collected, both from the Nursery: 26 July 1962 (41 mm.) and 28 Aug. 1961 (36 mm.).
DISTRIBUTION : This species is common in peninsular India, although it also occurs in the Himalaya (Talbot 1947). It occurs during the monsoon on all sides of Delhi.
Euploea core core (Cramer)
The Common Indian Crow is a very local and uncommon species that has only been found in a particular shaded, damp area in the Nursery, where Leptosia nina and Mycalesis perseus also occur. It has only been collected from July II to Nov. I (no October specimens). Longstaff (1912) found it “‘...common in shady places under mango trees, but was rarely seen at flowers, ’” 7-12 Nov. 1903. 12 specimens: 3 males (25%), 9 females—one of the few Delhi butterflies whose females are more fre- quently collected than the males.
SIZE: dc? 41 mm. (28 July & 29 Aug. 1961, JPD) to 45 mm. (3 Nov. 1963, RLD). 2 941 mm. (21 July 1962, JPD) to 47 mm. (19 July 1961, JPD).
DISTRIBUTION: This species occurs throughout India, where it is generally common (Talbot 1947; Wynter-Blyth 1957), although it appa- rently does not occur as far west as Sind (Menesse 1950).
SATYRIDAE
Mycalesis perseus tabitha (Fabricius)
Like Euploea core, the Common Bushbrown has only been found in a small, damp, shady area of the Nursery, where it flies from July III to Nov. III. Although the valva resembles that found in some populations
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42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
of M. mineus figured by Evans (1920), all other characters of the facies listed by Talbot (1947) point to this species. 30 specimens: 18 males (60%), 12 females.
SIZE: oo’ 18.5 mm. (17 Nov. 1962, RCF) to 21 mm. (several).
@ 2 21 mm. (2 specimens, 25 Sept. 1961, JPD)to 25mm. (2 specimens, 4 Nov. 1961, JPD).
VARIATION: As in the other two Delhi satyrids, the seasonal forms are well-marked. The WSF, with prominent ocelli UNH, occurs from July HI to Oct. I, while the DSF, with greatly reduced ocelli UNH, has been collected from Nov. I to Nov. HI. Only five of the 30 specimens are of the dry season form.
DISTRIBUTION: Talbot (1947) records this subspecies from Ceylon north to the U.P. It has been reported from Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe 1902) and Fatehgarh (Peile 1911), but there appear to be no other records west of Delhi, indicating that Delhi is near the western edge of the range of this species. The similar M. mineus polydecta (Cramer) apparently does not occur as far north or west as Delhi.
Ypthima inica Hewitson
Despite the status of “not rare” given the Lesser Threering by Talbot (1947) and Wynter-Blyth (1957), it is locally very common in Delhi. This little butterfly is virtually restricted to a wet grassy lowland area on the north side of the Nursery (plate I, 2), where it has been found from July IV to April II, and on May IV. A few stray specimens have also been collected on the Ridge, at Tughlakabad (29 Sept. 1961, JPD), and at Okhla (1 Dec. 1962, RLD). The species is most common during the monsoon season (59 specimens have been collected Aug. IV, of which 76% were males). Two copulating pairs were collected on 21 Sept. 1961 (JPD). 204 specimens: 137 males (67%), 67 females.
SIZE: Both sexes vary from 14 mm. to 18 mm., although dry season specimens are usually somewhat smaller than those from the wet season.
VARIATION: The seasonal forms are well-marked, but have an un- usual temporal distribution. The dry season form “ inica” Hewitson, with the ocelli UNH represented by mere dots, flies from Oct. IV to April II. But the ocellated wet season form “ ariaspa *” Moore has also been collected in April II, again in May IV, and during the monsoon from July IV to Nov. IV. The appearance of the “ wet season ” form in two of the hottest, driest months of the year, similar to the situation in several other species noted earlier, is an unexplained phenomenon that has apparently escaped the notice of other authors.
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AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 43
DISTRIBUTION: The Lesser Threering. has been recorded from the Punjab to Bengal by Talbot (1947), while Swinhoe (1886) has recorded jt in Mhow and Depalpur, Madhya Pradesh. de Rhé-Philipe (1917) has recorded two specimens from Lahore, and Sevastopulo (1948) says it is common in Amritsar, Punjab, but no other records from west of Delhi have been found.
Neither the widespread Y. asterope mahratta Moore nor Y. ceylonica Hewitson have been found in Delhi, even though the genitalia of all Delhi males were examined and compared with representatives of those species in the MSU collection, and with the figures in Cantlie & Norman (1959). Y. ceylonica hubneri Kirby has been recorded from Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe 1902), while Y. asterope mahratta has been collected in Jodhpur and on Mount Abu (MacPherson 1927), Kathiawar (Mosse 1929), and Karachi (Swinhoe 1887). I have also collected Y. mahratta in Sumerpur, Rajasthan, 320 miles southwest of Delhi (5 Oct. 1961).
Either of these two species may be found in Delhi, but intensive collecting has so far failed to yield a specimen.
Melanitis leda ismene (Cramer)
This crepuscular species is best collected in the evening, although one may find specimens during the day by beating the bushes in the Nursery. It has also been collected at light (Donahue 19626). Outside the Nursery it has only been taken at Tughlakabad (29 Sept. 1961, JPD), though it probably occurs in other favourable habitats in the State. It flies only during and after the monsoon, from July III to December III. 35 specimens: 13 males (37%), 22 females—another of the few Delhi species in which the female is collected more often than the male.
SIZE: The forewing of both males and females varies from 32 mm. to 37 mm. in length.
VARIATION: The seasonal forms are very different from each other in the markings on the underside of the hindwing: the WSF “‘ deter- minata’’ Butler, which flies from July III to Oct. I, has conspicuous ocelli UNH, while the DSF “‘ ismene ” (Cramer), which flies from Oct. I to Dec. III, has no ocelli. Both forms have been collected together in the first week of October.
DISTRIBUTION: The Common Evening Brown is found throughout India, although it becomes less common in the desert areas of western India (Talbot 1947). It has apparently not been recorded in Sind since 1886, when Swinhoe (1887) caught two specimens in Karachi.
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44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
HYPOTHETICAL LIST
In addition to the 77 species recorded from Delhi in this paper, there are 32 other species which have been recorded from neighbouring localities that may yet be found in Delhi. The authorities for the records are the same as those which have been cited in the text, unless another source is cited. A question mark indicates doubt on my part concerning the proper identification of the species.
HESPERIIDAE
Sarangesa dasahara (Moore) ssp.: Lucknow; Mount Abu (Evans 1949; MacPherson 1927).
Udaspes folus (Cramer): Lucknow, Mount Abu, Kathiawar.
Oriens gola pseudolus (Mabille)?: Lucknow? (de Rhé-Philipe 1905); the westernmost record in the B.M. is the Nepal Terai (Evans 1949).
Telicota ancilla bambusae (Moore): Amritsar? (Sevastopulo 1948); Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe 1902; Evans 1910). The distribution given by Evans (1949) indicates that this species may occur as far west as Delhi.
Borbo bevani (Moore)?: Lahore; Karachi (Swinhoe 1887), possibly confused with B. cinnara. Nearest record in B.M. is ‘‘ Central India” and Kumaon (Evans 1949).
PAPILIONIDAE
Polydorus hector (Linnaeus): Jodhpur.
Papilio clytia clytia Linnaeus, form “ dissimilis’’ Linnaeus: Luck- now; Fatehgarh (Peile 1911).
PIERIDAE
Appias lyncida (Cramer) ssp.: Lucknow (reported as A. hippoides Moore, a synonym); Fatehgarh? (Peile 1911).
Pieris brassicae nepalensis Doubleday: Lucknow, Amritsar (Sanders 1930); Lahore.
Colotis phisadia protractus (Butler): Lahore?; Jodhpur; Kutch, Sind; Kaira District, Gujarat; Lyallpore, West Pakistan (Sevastopulo 1948). In flight it will resemble C. calais.
Colotis danae dulcis (Butler): Jodhpur; Kutch; Sind; Kathiawar; Gujarat (MSU collection).
Valeria valeria anais (Lesson) (formerly V. v. hippia): Lucknow; Fatehgarh (Peile 1911). —~ [58]
AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 45
RIODINIDAE Abisara echerius (Stoll) ssp.; Fatehgarh.
LYCAENIDAE Everes lacturnus (Godart) ssp.: Kanpur, U.P. (Sanders 1955).
Jamides bochus bochus (Cramer): Jodhpur; Kaira Dist.; possibly a specimen in I.A.R.I. collection, obtained in Delhi, April 1958, by M. G. Ramdas Menon. Specimen could not be examined by author. West Pakistan? (Cantlie 1962, but Menesse 1950, did not record it).
Iraota timoleon (Stoll) ssp.: Lucknow.
Apharitis acamas hypargyrus (Butler): Kutch; Sind; Kathiawar; Punjab (Cantlie 1962). A stray specimen may occur as far east as Delhi.
Spindasis elima elima (Moore): Lucknow; Sind. Tajuria jehana Moore: Lucknow.
Tajuria cippus cippus (Fabricius): Lucknow; “Pakistan - India Burma - Common.” (Cantlie 1962).
Virachola isocrates (Fabricius): Lucknow; Mount Abu; Kutch; Kathiawar; Karachi; Kaira District. The larva feeds on fruits of pome- granate and guava, and the adults should be looked for in groves of these plants.
Rapala varuna orseis (Hewitson): Lucknow. The larva feeds on the flowers of Zizyphus xylopyrus.
Rapala manea schistacea (Moore): Bareilly, U.P. (de Rhé-Philipe 1902). Larvae have been reared on flowers of the Rangoon Creeper (Quisqualis indica) and Acacia caesia.
NYMPHALIDAE
Euthalia garuda (Moore) ssp.: Lucknow; Lahore; Amritsar. The larva has usually been reared on mango and cashew.
Neptis hylas varmona Moore: Lucknow. A widespread species that may stray into Delhi.
Precis atlites (Linnaeus): Lucknow. Precis iphita (Cramer) ssp.: Lucknow; Kanpur, U.P. (Sanders 1955).
Cirrochroa tyche mithila Moore: Lucknow; Fatehgarh—remarkable records, since this species is not normally considered to occur west of Sikkim.
ACRAEIDAE
Acraea violae (Fabricius): Lucknow, where it is abundant some years and rare in others (de Rhé-Philipe 1902); Fatehgarh, probably the northwestern-most record of this southern species.
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46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
SATYRIDAE
Ypthima asterope mahratta Moore may be found in Delhi. See the
comments under Y. inica.
Orsotrioena medus (Fabricius) ssp.: Lucknow.
Melanitis phedima (Stoll) ssp.: Lucknow.
REFERENCES
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BEIRNE, BRYAN P. (1947a): Changes in the distribution and abundance of the Lepidoptera. Ent. Rec. Jour. Var. 59: 60-63.
(1947b): The effects of human activities on the distribution and abundance of the Lepidoptera. Ent. Rec. Jour. Var. 59: 37-42.
BELL, T. R. (1918). The common butterflies of the plains of India. Part XX. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 25: 636-664.
BUTLER, ARTHUR G. (1886): On Lepidoptera collected by Major Yerbury in western India. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1886: 355-395, 1 pl.
CANTLIE, KEITH (1962): The Lycae- nidae portion (except the Arhopala Group) of Brigadier Evans’ The Identi- fication of Indian Butterflies .1932 (India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Burma). Bombay Na- tural History Society, Bombay. vi+159 pp., 5 pls.
———————— (1963): Genitalia of the butterfly genus Spindasis Wallengren. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 466-468, 1 pl.
——————— & Norman, T. (1959): Notes on the butterfly genus Ypthima. op. cit. 56: 66-71, 12 figs.
CHAPMAN, T. A. (1910): On Zizeeria (Chapman), Zizera (Moore), a group of lycaenid butterflies. Trans. Lond. Ent. Soc. 1910: 479-497, 10 pls.
CLARK, AUSTIN H. (1926) : Carnivorous butterflies. Ann. Rept. Smithsonian Inst. 1925: 439-508.
CorBET, A. STEVEN (1940): The iden- tity of the Fabrician species Papilio sphinx and Papilio hylax. Entomologist 73: 275-277.
(1941): Observations on certain of the Fabrician names of Indo- Australian Rhopalocera (Lepid.). Proc. Roy. Ent. Soc. London (B) 10 : 98-106, 1 fig.
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(1945): The Linnaean names of Indo-Australian Rhopalocera. Part 4. The Chinese butterflies in the Linnaean collection obtained by Peter Osbeck in 1751. op. cit. 14: 91-94.
—————— & PENDLEBURY, H. M. (1956): The butterflies of the Malay Peninsula, 2nd ed., rev. Oliver and Boyd. Edinburgh. xi-+-537 pp., 55 pls. (8 col.).
CRAWFORD, W. M. (1930): Dwarf specimens of butterflies. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 261-262, 1 pl.
DIxEY, FREDERICK A. (1902): Notes on some cases of seasonal dimorphism in butterflies, with an account of experi- ments by Mr. G. A. K. Marshall, F.Z.S. a Ent. Soc. Lond. 1902: 189-218, 1 pl.
DONAHUE, JULIAN P. (1962a): Danaus chrysippus form dorippus in Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59: 311-312.
(19625): Observations and records of butterflies attracted to Hehe in India. Jour. lepid. Soc. 16: 131-
STi |
(1962c): Are domestic animals overgrazing the Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary in Rajasthan? J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59: 645-649, 2 pls.
Dos Passos, CyrRIL F. (1964): A Syno- nymic List of the Nearctic Rhopalocera. Lepid. Soc. Mem. No. 1, v+145 pp.
Evans, W. H. (1910): Additions and corrections to certain local butterfly
lists, with the description of a new species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 20: 423-427.
(1920): A note on the species of the genus Mycalesis (Lepidop- tera), occurring within Indian limits. op. cit. 27: 354-362, 4 pls.
————_————_ (1927): The Identifica- tion of Indian Butterflies, Ist ed. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. xi+ 302 pp., 32 pls.
———————._ (1932): The Identi- fication of Indian Butterflies, 2nd ed., rev. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. x+454 pp., 32 pls.
AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 47
Evans, W. H. (1949): A Catalogue of the Hesperiidae from Europe, Asia, and Australia in the British Museum (Natural History). The British Museum (N. H.), London. xix+502 pp., 53 pls. (11 col.).
seed 2tF (1955): A revision of the genus Tarucus (Lepidoptera: Lycae- nidae) of Europe, North Africa and Asia. Entomologist 88: 179-187, 14 figs.
Fox, RICHARD M. (1964): The genus Phalanta [Lepidoptera, Nymphalidae}. Bull. Inst. Francais Afr. Noire 26A: 632-639, 6 figs.
FRASER, F. C. (1911): Notes on Colotis in Sind. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 20: 867-869.
FRUHSTORFER, H. (1912): Nymphalidae (pars), pp. 453-640. In A. Seitz, 1927, The Macrolepidoptera of the World. vol. 9, The Indo-Australian Rhopalocera. Alfred Kernen, Stuttgart.
GasriEL, A. G. (1943): A revision of the genus Jxias Hubner (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). Proc. Roy. Ent. Soc. Lond. (B) 12: 55-70.
GOLDSCHMIDT, RICHARD B. (1945): Mimetic polymorphism, a controversial chapter of Darwinism. Quart. Rev. Biol. 20: 147-164; 205-230.
K.ots, ALEXANDER B. (1956) : Lepidop- tera, pp. 97-111. In S. L. Tuxen, ed., Taxonomist’s Glossary of Genitalia in Insects. Einar Munksgaard, Copenhagen.
84 pp.
LONGSTAFF, GEORGE B. (1912): Butter- fly-Hunting in Many Lands. Longmans, Green and Co., London. xvili+728 pp., 16 pls. (7 col.).
MacPue_rson, A. D. (1927): Notes on a collection of butterflies made in Jodh- pur and Mount Abu during the years 1924, 1925 and 1926. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32: 228-230.
MAHESHWARI, J. K. (1963): The Flora of Delhi. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi. 447 pp.
MarSHALL, Guy A. K. (1901): Some experiments in seasonal dimorphism. on Mag. Nat. Hist. 8 (7th ser.): 398-
MenessE, N. H. (1950): Butterflies of Sind. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49 : 20-24.
Moor_E, F. (1890-1892): Lepidoptera Indica, vol. 1. Lovell Reeve & Co., London. xii+317 pp., 94 pls.
———————— (1893-1896): op. cit., vol. 2. Lovell Reeve & Co., London. vii-+274 pp., 96 pls.
—_————— (1896-1899): op. cit., vol. 3. Lovell Reeve & Co., London. Vili+254 pp., 96 pls.
———— (1899-1900): op.cit.,vol.4. Lovell Reeve & Co., London. viii-++-260 pp., 92 pls.
Mosse, A. H. (1929): A note on the butterflies and hawk-moths of Kathiawar. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 33: 888-892.
MUKHERJEE, SUNIL KUMAR (1953): Vegetation of the Delhi ‘“ Ridge.”’ op. cit. 51: 439-465.
MUNROE, EUGENE (1961): The classi- fication of the Papilionidae (Lepidoptera). Can. Ent., Supp. 17, 51 pp.
NICEVILLE, LIONEL DE (1886): The Butterflies of India, Burmah, and Ceylon, vol. 2. Calcutta Central Press Co., Ltd., Calcutta.
Nurse, C. G. (1899): Lepidoptera taken in Cutch. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 511-514.
PeILE, H. D. (1911): Some butterflies taken at Fatehgarh. op. cit. 20: 873-875.
PERCY-LANCASTER, S. (1949): The butterfly Danaus chrysippus in Calcutta. op. cit. 48: 381.
PRONIN, GEORG (1964): The mating time of Lepidoptera. Jour. lepid. Soc. 18: 35-41.
Rue-PHILIPE, GEORGE W. V. DE (1902): The butterflies of the Lucknow District. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 14: 481-493.
————_—— (1905): Further notes on the butterflies of Lucknow District. op. cit. 16: 720-722.
———————— (1917): The butterflies of Lahore. op. cit. 25: 136-142.
Rosson, S. (1893): Notes on Argynnis niphe Linnaeus, a nymphalid butterfly. op. cit. 8: 151-152.
SANDERS, D. F. (1930): Occurrence of Colias hyale hyale and Pieris canidia indica in the plains. op. cit. 34: 591.
(1955): Miscellaneous notes on Indian butterflies. op. cit. 52: 803-830.
SAXTON, W. T. (1924): Phases of vegetation under monsoon conditions. Jour. Ecol. 12: 1-38, 57 figs.
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SEVASTOPULO, D. G. (1944): Seasonal forms of Indian Satyridae (Lep. Rhop.). Entomologist 77: 164-166.
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SEVASTOPULO, D.G.(1948) : Local lists of Lepidoptera from the Punjab and U.P. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 47: 586-593.
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(1963): A synonymic list of the genus Nacaduba and allied genera (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). Bull. Brit. Mus. (N.H.) Ent. 13: 67-116, 2 pls., 91 figs.
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Studies in Taxonomy and Ecology of Bursera delpechiana Poiss, ex Engl. in India
RAJENDRA GUPTA AND ROMA BANERII Central Indian Medicinal Plants Organisation, Lucknow (With a plate)
Bursera delpechiana Poiss. ex Engl. is an economic plant, the source of ‘ oil of linaloe ’ of commerce. The oil is used as a fixative for high grade perfumery and cosmetic products. There has been a long controversy over sexuality in the species. It has been found to be dioecious by the authors. Complete taxonomic details of the species have been worked out.
The tree grows well under Indian conditions and shows much better growth than in its original home in Mexico under forestry conditions. Edaphic and climatic conditions favouring the lixuriant growth of the species in India have been studied and are listed in the paper to encourage its commercial plantation.
INTRODUCTION
‘Oil of linaloe’ is derived from the wood and fruits of Bursera delpechiana Poiss. ex Engl. and allied species [B. aléexylon (Schiede.) Engl., and B. glabrifolia (H.B.K.) ], all growing wild in Mexico. The entire world supply of the oil comes from Mexico. The oil is a rich source of linalol and linalyl acetate and is highly priced for its aroma. It is ex- tensively used as a fixative for high grade perfumery and cosmetic products. Indian oil of linaloe, on the contrary, is derived entirely from the fruits of B. delpechiana Poiss. ex Engl., and possesses a superior staying power in comparison with the oil produced in Mexico (Sastry 1945). The total production averages to about 6,000 kg. of oil and the entire quantity is consumed in the country. In view of the exceedingly fine odour, the Indian oil of linaloe has good prospects for export. It is therefore desir- able that Bursera plantations be raised on a substantially large scale in suitable localities in the country.
Bursera delpechiana Poiss. ex Engl. was introduced into this country by two enterprising Scotsmen—P. J. Anderson and G. N. Humphries, from seeds brought by them from Mexico in 1912 (Burton 1951). After trials at a number of places in Mysore, they finally raised a commercial plantation at Tatgunni, about 20 km. from Bangalore City. The Tatgunni Estate has a monopoly in production of this oil and about 125 hectares of its area is under regular plantation. Interest in the species has recently
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revived, mainly due to the efforts of Essential Oils Research Committee and its successor the Central Indian Medicinal Plants Organisation of the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research. A plantation of over 500 hectares has been raised by Mysore Forest Department in Gattipura, Nallal affld Jharakbunde forest blocks of Bangalore District. Experi- mental cultivation has also been undertaken at more than a dozen places at widely separated areas in south India and the results are encouraging.
Despite the economic importance. of the plant and its products, information on systematics and ecology of the species has so far been incomplete. In fact, the latest description of the species in botanical literature is in De Candolle’s MONOGRAPHIAE PHANEROGAMARUM of 1883. Publications from India for the last three decades have variously des- cribed the sexuality in the species, and this in turn has caused a set-back in determining the number and location of the male trees in a plantation. Sastry (1945) mentions that “‘ some trees in Tatgunni Estate put on flowers only, yielding no berries’’. He argues in a later work (1952), that “‘ this led to the belief that there are male and female linaloe trees. But it has been authoritatively stated that this is not so. The flowers possess normal reproductive organs of both sexes i.e. bisexual’. Hussain (1958), on the contrary, describes it as dioecious. More recently Rangegowda & Ramaswamy (1965) stated that “the dioecious nature of the species has not been confirmed’’. In view of these uncertainties, detailed studies have been undertaken by the authors covering various aspects of cultivation in the country which will be published later. The present communication, however, covers taxonomy and ecology of the species. The material for the study was collected by the senior author from commercial plantations in the vicinity of Bangalore City during May 1965, and a thorough exa- mination of the species was made in the field.
TAXONOMY
Deciduous shrubs or small trees attaining 6 m. height and 1 m. girth at age of 20 years. Tap root not seen, all the plants examined being raised from shoot-cuttings. Lateral roots six or more in number, first travelling obliquely 1 to 2 m. in depth then turning upwards and ulti- mately traversing more or less parallel to the ground to a distance of about 4-5 m. in old trees; texture brittle, light in weight and up to 2 cm. thick in trees of over 35 years age; epidermis greyish brown, paper thin, peeling off in flakes in older roots; hypodermis dull-brown, 0.2 to 0.3 cm. in thickness; wood light-yellow. Roots have characteristic linaloe odour. Trunk short, branched freely above to form a loose oval dome. Old branches mostly with distant, alternate, short, conical arrested branchlets, smooth, longitudinally ridged when dry; bark deep-brown,
papery, easily peeled off exposing inner green layer, often transversely
J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (1)
Gupta: Bursera delpechiana
Linaloe Tree, Bursera delpechiana Poiss. ex Engl.
A. Flowering twig x4; B. Staminate flower <9; C. Pistillate flower (Staminodes visible) x9; D. Fruit x1; E. T. S. fruit (diagrammatic) r.d.—resiniferous ducts, sd.—seed, ab.o.—abortive ovule, s.loc.—suppressed loculi.
BURSERA DELPECHIANA POISS. EX ENGL. IN INDIA 51
ruptured at length. New twigs glabrescent, always terminal on old bran- ches as well as arrested branchlets. Leaves (3-) 7-9-foliolate, up to 15 cm. long, distantly alternate on new shoots or pseudoterminally clustered and comparatively shorter on arrested branchlets, developing from the axil of apical crown of stipular caducous scales. Scales chaffy, light brown, 0.6-1.2x0.4-0.6 cm., variable in size and shape in the same crown, broadly-ovate to ovate-oblong, abruptly deflexed from above the con- stricted base, thickened along the middle, obtuse to almost round and hooded at the apex with a prominent apiculum just below the tip, densely glandular on both surfaces. Leaf-rachis sparsely pilose with mixed glandular hairs, between the pairs of leaflets broadly winged, wings usually broad above, narrowed gradually downwards. Petiole slender, up to 4 cm. long, deeply channelled. Leaflets up to 5.5 X2.2 cm., ovate or rhomboid-ovate, sometimes oblique, minutely pubescent above, villous beneath, densely so on veins, acute at apex, round or abruptly short-attenuate at base, sub-sessile to short-petiolate, serrate-crenate in the upper region, entire below, the terminal leaflet usually larger than the lateral ones and conspicuously long-attenuated at the base or often
at the apex also.
Inflorescence a paniculate cyme with pubescent axes, up to 10 cm. long, pseudo-terminal as well as axillary from the leaves on new shoots or from the leaf-scar of the fallen leaves, those borne on the arrested branchlets distinctly shorter. Flowers dioecious, tetramerous, bracts subtending the branches linear-lanceolate, 0.2-0.4 cm. long, those subtending the flowers minute, subulate, hardly exceeding 0.15 cm., both glandular-hairy, densely on inner surface. Pedicel of the terminal flower up to 0.8 cm. long, of the laterals up to 0.4 cm., pilose with mixed glandular hairs, densely so towards the top. Pistillate flowers: Sepals green, deltoid, thick, below 0.1 cm. in length, glandular-hairy, inserted below the disc. Petals creamy, about 0.3 x1.2 cm., oblong, acute, half deflexed, densely villous with mixed glandular hairs at the back, glabrous inside, acute with an obscurely hooded tip, inconspicuously thickened along the margins (microscopically papillose). Staminodes 8, apparently normal but anthers without sporogenous tissue, in two whorls, obdi- plostaminous, about 0.15 cm. long; filaments nearly as long as the anthers, much dilated at base, gradually narrowed upwards, inserted below the disc. Disc annular, crenately 8-lobed, about 0.15 cm. in dia- meter. Ovary conical, laterally compressed, glabrous, attenuated to a short 2-armed style; loculi 2 with 2 ovules in each. Stigmas more or less globular, slightly lobed. Staminate flowers: Sepals as in female. Petals often slightly longer than those of the female, otherwise similar. Stamens 8, 0.25-0.3 cm. long, anthers dorsifixed, adnate near the base. Filaments much dilated at base, gradually narrowed upwards, as long as or slightly longer than anthers. Pollen grains radio-symmetrical, 3-zonipororate,
52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
exine thick excepting at pores. Disc slightly narrower than of the female. Pistillode minute.
Fruit drupaceous, one-seeded, one of the loculi invariably suppressed forming one pyrene (all ovules except one abortive), ovoid, about 1 cm. diameter, biconvex, with indistinct four facets in the upper half, green, tinged red towards sunny face. Chromosome number n=12 (Srivastava et al 1965).
DISCUSSION
1. Staminodes in female flowers on a casual look appear quite normal. A close examination of sufficient material gathered from different com- mercial plantations reveals that these stamens are not only conspicuously shorter than the fertile ones in male flowers but are invariably without any sporogenous tissue. This has probably misled some of the earlier workers to account these flowers as bisexual. The flowers thus are uni- sexual and dioecious.
2. In one of the trees of 1958 Gattipura Forest Plantations, it has been observed that a male tree bears occasional fruits of normal size. These berries were invariably present only on inflorescence developing from axil of lower fallen leaves of the old branches. Although no female or bisexual flowers are available, it is quite probable that pistillode in such flowers becomes functional producing these fruits.
3. Lawrence (1951) has pointed out that the fruit in Burseraceae is morphologically a berry, stating that ‘‘ throughout the literature the baccate fruit of the family is designated a drupe or as drupaceous with 1-5 stones. There seems no morphological basis for treating it other than a berry that on occasion may be one-seeded by abortion.’’ However, even in recent standard works (Leenhouts 1956) the fruit has been called a drupe and the same has been adopted by the authors.
4. Stem-bark has marginal resiniferous ducts bordered on the out- side by a distinct, more or less interrupted, sinuous sclerenchymatous tissue. The pericarp of the fruit also possesses similar resiniferous ducts. The sclerenchymatous tissue does not allow the oil contained in the ducts to escape, but when injured transversely, as is practised in Mexico, the formation of oil is enhanced and the rate of exudation increases.
ECOLOGY
No information is available in literature, about the soil and climatic conditions prevailing in areas which this species inhabits, excepting that it grows on shallow soils in arid rocky regions of Mexico. The tree grows very well in its new home and in fact shows comparatively much better growth in India than in its original home. Krishna & Badhwar (1948) record
BURSERA DELPECHIANA POISS. EX ENGL. IN INDIA 53
that ‘“‘ The 25-year-old trees of Tatgunni Estate resemble in appearance and girth those of 60 years of age and upwards as represented by sections of the trees brought from Mexico’. A study was therefore undertaken to list ecological factors favouring the growth of the plant in India so as to encourage extension of its cultivation in the country.
Bursera delpechiana Poiss. ex Engl. is a hardy, more or less xerophytic species that makes little demand on land. Its deciduousnature and its shooting of vegetative growth and flowering simultaneously during a limited growing period of seven to eight months (April-November) happily synchronizes with the climatic vagaries of an arid tropical region. The plant flourishes well in sunny localities between 800 and 1200 m. above sea-level. It grows well on lateritic to red soils where the parent underlying rock is granitic-gneiss of Archean formation. The texture varies from loam to sandy-loam invariably mixed with gravel and pebbles, shallow to as deep as 10 m. (Nallal plantation) and is dominantly dry. Good drainage is essential. In regions of undulating topography, trenches at a distance of 10 m. are made along the contour to conserve moisture for the plantation by reducing run-away of rain water. The plant has been observed to come up normally in partially eroded areas but the growth in deep, average fertile soil is visibly better. A comparative study of yield of fruits under different soil types and fertility however, deserves experi- mental work.
The plant favours hot dry summers, the average maximum and minimum temperature of the year is 35°C and 18°C and the total annual rainfall usually measures between 450 mm. and 650 mm. distributed throughout the growing period but bulk of the precipitation however, is received from north-east monsoon in September-October. Humi- dity is low for most of the year excepting the monsoon months. Blossom rains during April-May increase incidence of flowering and fruiting. The plant is sensitive to frost and water-logged conditions.
The natural vegetation of the area is dry scrub having few tree species mostly Acacia and Albizia. Acacia leucophlaea Willd., A. suma Kurz, A. concinna DC., Albizia odoratissima (Roxb.) Benth., and Santalum album Linn., have been prominently recorded. Casuarina equisetifolia Forst. is raised commercially on poor lands in the area as a fuel crop. The ground cover mostly comprises Dodonaea viscosa Linn., Cassia auriculata Linn., Carissa spinarum A.DC., Lantana camara Linn., Ery- throxylon monogynum Roxb., Calotropis gigantea Br., Asparagus race- mosus Willd., Argemone mexicana Linn., and a large number of annual weeds, grasses and sedges.
Vast stretches of land having the above stated edaphic and climatic conditions are available in Mysore, Madras, Maharashtra, Andhra
54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh where the plant could be raised. The Central Indian Medicinal Plants Organisation have recently introduced this species in certain selected localities in northern India and the results are being watched with interest. If these efforts succeed, it would open entirely new areas for raising commercial plantations of the species.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are highly indebted to Col. B. N. Mitra and Dr. S. C. Datta, Director and Scientist-E respectively of our Organisation for encouragement in carrying out this work. Thanks are also due to Shri P. Chowdaeppa, Silviculturist, Mysore Forest Department; Shri D. Rangegowda, C. I.M.P. O. Bangalore and Shri V. S. Sharma, National Botanical Gardens, Lucknow.
REFERENCE
BurTOon, R. W. (1951): The linaloe Tree (Bursera delpechiana Poisson). An intro- duction into the flora of India. J. Bombay Nat. His. Soc. 51(1): 116-120.
DE CANDOLLE fs biscapraleans Phanerogamarum IV:
GUENTHER, E. (1950): The Essential Oils. vol. IV. 331-345. D. V. Nostrand & Co., London.
HusSsAIN, SYED (1958): A preliminary note on Bursera delpechiana (Linaloe or Indian Lavender). Ind. For. 84(2) : 104-107.
KRISHNA, S. & BADHWAR, R. L. (1948): Aromatic Plants of India ‘* Family XXVII—Burseraceae (Balsam & Torch- wood family). Jour. Sci. & industr. Res. 7(8): 117-128.
LAWRENCE, G. H. M. (1951): Taxo- nomy of vascular plants: 560. The Macmillan Company, New York.
LEENHOUTS, P. W. et al. (1956): ‘* Bur- seraceae’’ in Fl. Males. ser. 1, 5: 209-96.
RANGEGOWDA, D. & RAMASWamy, M. N. (1965): The Indian Linaloe oil. Bursera delpechiana Poisson. Perf. Es- sent. oil Rec. 56(2): 85-89.
SASTRY, S. G. (1945): Mysore Linaloe Oil (Bursera delpechiana). Jour. Sci. & industr. Res. 3: 516-518.
——————. (1952): Indian (Mysore) Linaloe Oil—A monograph, Govt. Press, Bangalore.
SRIVASTAVA, G. N. & SRINATH, K. V. (1965): Floral morphology and chromo- somes in Bursera delpechiana Poiss. Curr. Sci. 34: 514-515.
On some aspects of the Biology of Cowlia dussumiert (Cuv. and Val.)' .
BY MADHAV GADGIL?
Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Bombay (With six figures)
The smaller sized individuals of C. dussumieri apparently inhabit shallower and inshore waters, while the larger fish live in deeper and off- shore waters. The inshore waters are fished intensively during the
monsoons, resulting in a preponderance of fish below a length of 110 mm. in the catch.
Due to the protracted spawning period of the fish, there is no pro- gression of modes in the monthly length frequency distributions.
The size at first maturity has been estimated at 131-140 mm.
The sex ratio of 53.41 males: 46.59 females deviates significantly from the 50:50 ratio. Males outnumber females in higher length groups,
probably because the females migrate to offshore grounds at a smaller size.
The spawning season probably extends from September to March.
The fish has a protracted spawning period and spawns more than once in each spawning season.
The total number of possible spawnings has been estimated at three, from the ratio of the number of ova in the last batch to the number of remaining maturing eggs.
The ponderal index curve changes slope at 130 mm., considered to be the size at first maturity. There are no regular seasonal variations in the ponderal index.
Fecundity is estimated at 1200 to 4200 eggs per spawning.
INTRODUCTION
Coilia dussumieri is common in the estuaries of Bombay and Orissa. This fish, locally known as Mandeli, is very important commercially and is landed in appreciable quantities throughout the year at Bombay. It is
fished, along with a variety of other fishes and prawns, in a type of bag- net called the dol.
Earlier accounts of the species include skeletal system (Joshi & Bal 1953 a andb), eggs and early development (Delsman 1932), post-larval stages (Jones & Menon 1952), seasonal changes in the gonad condition
1 This paper is based on work submitted to the University of Bombay in part fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology.
2 Present address: Harvard University, Museum of Comp. Zoology, Cambridge 38, Massachusetts, U.S.A, £1}:
56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
(Palekar & Karandikar 1953), food and feeding habits, sex composition and length-weight relationship (Bal & Joshi 1956) and food and feeding habits at different growth stages (Bapat & Bal 1950). Verghese (1961) has given an account of the biology of Coilia borneensis.
Our knowledge of the reproductive biology of the fish is meagre. Palekar & Karandikar (1953) could only conclude that C. dussumieri is an offshore breeder with a protracted spawning period. This paper deals for the first time with the length-frequency distribution, size at first maturity, ponderal index, and fecundity of C. dussumieri. It also attempts
to define more precisely the breeding season, and the number of spawn- -
ings per season, and records the occurrence of spent specimens.
METHODS
Samples were collected once a week over a period of one year from October 1963 to September 1964 from commercial landings of the dol fishery at Sassoon Docks, Bombay. Altogether 1,567 specimens were examined for the study of length-frequency distribution. Of these 493 male, 430 female, and 230 juvenile specimens were examined to ascertain the state of development of the gonads. Ova diameter frequencies were determined for 125 representative ovaries by Clark’s method (Clark 1934). 21 ovaries were used to estimate fecundity by counting directly the number of ova in the last mode from a known fraction of a previously weighed ovary.
LENGTH FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
The data pertaining to the length frequency distribution of each month are presented in Figure | after grouping at intervals of 5 mm.
Monthly length frequency polygons are well marked in Figure 1 and seem to be of two different types. Those of the seven months from October to April show a very similar pattern. During these months a large proportion of individuals fall in the size range 151 to 165 mm.
(modal group a). The remaining fish are distributed over a wide range, .
extending from 61 mm. upwards, forming a number of small modes. The distribution in the month of May is similar to that found during the period October-April, except that no fish smaller than 120 mm. was present. The pattern of distribution is different during the four months of mon- soon viz. June to September. In these months a modal group is present in the size range 151 to 155 mm. (modal group a), but is much less promi- nent. On the other hand, the proportion of the smaller sized individuals is greater. The size groups 131-135 mm., 106-110 mm. and 126-130 mm. form distinct modes (modal groups 5), in the months of June, August and September respectively, ;
PP en
BIOLOGY OF COILIA DUSSUMIERI( CUV. AND VAL.) 37
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TOTAL LENGTH IN’ MM,
Fig. 1. Length frequency distribution of Coilia dussumieri.
Neither the fishing gear, nor the fishermen exert any selective action with respect to the size of the fish caught, as the, dol net collects even very small fishes including the shrimps Aceftes and the fishermen retain the entire catch.
Enquiries with local fishermen revealed that the operation of dol nets is concentrated in shallow and more inshore waters during the monsoon months. Apparently, Coilia dussumieri are distributed with the smaller specimens occurring in shallower waters, closer to the coast, and the larger specimens occurring in deeper waters farther off the coast, as in the case of the classical example of the distribution of Plaice Pleuro- nectes platessa (Graham 1956). As the shallower and more inshore waters are fished intensively only during the monsoon, the smaller sized fish predominate in the catches during these months.
No progression of modes is apparent in the length frequency distri- bution from month to month. The principal mode falls in the range 151-165 mm. from October to May. A distinct mode occurs in this range during the June-September period as well, That the length frequency
58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
distribution remains without much progress from month to month may be due to the prolonged spawning period of the fish which extends from September to March (see page 63).
BREEDING (a) Stages of Maturity The female Coilia dussumieri was distinguished as belonging to five stages of maturity on the basis of the stage of development of intraovarian eggs. These growth stages were designated as (i) Immature, (ii) Maturing, (iii) Ripening, (iv) Ripe, and (v) Spent (Qasim 1957 a and b, Qayyum & Qasim 1964 a, b and c).
Stage I. Immature
Ovaries small, translucent, and elongated; ranging from 10 mm. to 22.5 mm. in length, and containing a large number of small, fully transparent ova without yolk, diameter varying from 0.07472 mm. to 0.1868 mm.
Stage II. Maturing
Ovaries granular and somewhat enlarged, ranging from 13 mm. to 36 mm. in length. In addition to the stock of fully transparent, immature ova, a number of maturing ova are also present. These are whitish and opaque, and well supplied with yolk. Maturing ova grow up to 0.7472 mm. in diameter, the average size being 0.5604 mm.
Stage III. Ripening
Ovary greyish, flat and densely packed with ova which are clearly distinguishable with the naked eye. Size of the ovary ranges from 19 to 38 mm. in length. Ova large, spherical, and heavily laden with yolk. They develop a narrow perivitelline space after reaching a diameter of 0.08406 mm. They grow up to a diameter of 1.0274 mm. but the majority are larger than 0.5604 mm.
Stage IV. Ripe
No fish in ripe condition were present in the samples. Palekar & Karandikar (1953) also failed to encounter any ripe specimens although Bal & Joshi (1956) came across a few fish in this condition.
Stage V. Spent
Specimens of C. dussumieri in spent condition have not been recorded from Bombay waters before. Four specimens in this condition were obtained during the course of the present investigation. Ovaries flaccid, bloodshot and shrunken, measuring between 26 to 28 mm. in length. In addition to the numerous immature and small maturing ova up toa diameter of 0.5604 mm., the ovaries contained a few large residual ova
BIOLOGY OF COILIA DUSSUMIERI (CUV. AND VAL.) 59
of about 1.0 mm. to 1.23 mm. diameter. These were fully transparent with segmented yolk and included 10 to 15 oil globules.
(b) Size at first Maturity
For the purposes of determination of size at first maturity, all females with eggs larger than 0.1868 mm. were considered as maturing and classed among fish that would spawn within the next few months. The percentages of females maturing at each length group are given in Table I, The curve was found not to be a normal one when plotted on arithmetic probability paper. Holt (1959) suggests that in such a case the curve should be specified in terms of the median length of attainment of maturity and its interquartile range. The median length of attainment of maturity for C. dussumieri is 155.96 mm. and the interquartile range extends from 148.01 mm. to 161.83 mm.
No female C. dussumieri smaller than 96 mm. in total length was found to be in maturing condition. Approximately 50% of the fish in the
o—o JUVENILE e—---u IMMATURE (STAGE 1)
------ MATURING € » rT) PERCENT —— RIPENING ¢ » m1) OF FISH ee, SPENT ( » YW)
WOrAL P LENGTH UIN MM.
Fig. 2. Percentage of Coilia dussumieri at various stages of maturity in different length groups.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
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BIOLOGY OF COILIA DUSSUMIERI (CUV. AND VAL.) 61
size range 131-140 mm. and 90% of the fish at a length of 151 mm. were observed to be in maturing condition.
Figure 2 illustrates the distribution of maturity stages over the length groups at 10 mm. interval. The size range for different stages of maturity are seen to overlap to a considerable extent.
Palekar & Karandikar (1953) consider all fish over a length of 155 mm. as recurrent maturing. However, during the course of the present investigation some fish as large as 167 mm. in length were noted to be in juvenile condition, i.e., possessing undifferentiated gonads whose sex could not be distinguished. These fish had definitely not spawned before. It was not possible to class any fish as maturing for the second or subse- quent times.
(c) Sex Ratio
Out of the 923 fish sexed, 493 were males and 430 were females. This
gives a ratio of 53.41 males : 46.59 females ; this deviates significantly from the 50: 50 ratio.
* Another feature of interest is the steady decrease in the pro- portion of females in the higher Percenr length groups (Table ITI). In view aa a of the fact that fish in ripe condi- % ee Pein tion were absent in the sample, “~ it would appear that females =, migrate to areas beyond the nor- ,,, [stax a mal fishing grounds at a smaller FEB ‘64 AUG "64 size than males, resulting ina x, preponderance of the latter in ™
higher length groups. ade ee 60z JAN “64 SLY “64 5 4 (d) Spawning Cycle 20% ; 5% The various stages of matu- aul aa : . 6 «75 5 Pe are rity for female C. dussumieri eee gk obtainable in the various months = : % of the year are shown in Tables, lI and Figure 3. Juveniles over , -??am—s Tro 100 mm. in length have also been = «x Nov'6s MAY ‘64 : ; 6 45% included in the analysis; 100 mm. xx SZ Fig. 3: Percentage of Coilia .[s*3= 7 rum dussumieri 9 at various stages of &% ocT'es APR ‘64
maturity in different months. 0,
J—Juvenile ; I—immature; IJ—Matur- ing ; III—Ripening; V—Spent Jr 0a 71-0 o
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1).
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BIOLOGY OF COILIA DUSSUMIERI (CUV. AND VAL.) 63
is about the lowest limit at which females could be identified correctly by an examination of the gonads.
The entire absence of ripe and the very rare occurrence of spent fish in the samples studied is of special interest. Probably as has been pointed out by Palekar & Karandikar (1953) and Bal & Joshi (1956), ‘C. dussumieri migrates to offshore grounds for spawning. This is further supported by the absence of eggs, larvae, and post-larvae of this fish in the inshore plankton of Bombay waters (Bal & Pradhan 1952). °
Ripening (stage II) fish occur in a substantial proportion (39.4% to 74.3%) from October to March. Spent specimens are obtained only in December. The proportion of ripening (stage III) females is much lower in April (15.5%) and May (11.7%). However, it is the juveniles which occur in the largest proportion in April (55.2%), the maturing (stage II) females preponderate in May (76.5%).
It has been noted above (see Length Frequency Distribution) that there is a change in the location of fishing ground during the four months of monsoon, viz. June to September, resulting in the sampling ofa different population made up of smaller and, presumably, younger individuals. The data for these four months are, therefore, not directly comparable with the data for the rest of the year. The proportion of ripening (stage III) females is lowest in June (2.2%) and quite low during July (5.7%) and August (14.5%), but rises again in September (37.0%). Palekar and Karandikar (1953) also found the ripening (stage III) fish ocgurring in low percentages in June, July and August.
The data suggest that the spawning season of C. dussumieri may extend from September to March, which months have a high proportion of ripening (stage III) females. The presence of spent fish in December is in agreement with this conclusion. However, in the absence of more direct data from fully ripe specimens or eggs and larvae, no definite conclusions can be drawn.
(e) Spawning Periodicity
The stages of maturity in C. dussumieri vary considerably among individuals, and generally at any one time of the year fishes at all stages of maturity are commonly seen. In order to demonstrate any periodicity in spawning, the data were grouped according to the location of the largest mode in the diameter frequency of the ova from each fish (Clark 1934 ; Howard & Landa 1958 ; Joseph 1963).
Table IV and Figure 4 show the mean percentage ova diameter distri- bution of the ova measurements of females grouped into nine classes resulting from this method. Classes B, C, D and E are maturing stage (III) females ; classes F, G, H and J are ripening (stage IV) females, and class
64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (\)
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Fig. 4. Size frequency distribution of intraovarian eggs of Coilia dussu- mieri in various stages of maturity.
L belongs to the spent stage of maturity. Ova diameter measurements were not actually carried out from immature females. Eggs smaller than 0.1868 mm., which were present in large numbers, were omitted.
The ova diameter frequency polygons indicate that the fish has a protracted spawning period. The batch of maturing eggs is not sharply differentiated from the general egg stock. Other groups of ova, with dis- tinct modes lying between the general egg stock and the last mode, appear to be progressing towards maturity. This multiplicity of modes in the
65
BIOLOGY OF COILIA DUSSUMIERI (CUV. AND VAL.)
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66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
frequency curves of ova diameters from maturing females suggests that each individual spawns more than once during the breeding season.
An estimate of the total number of possible spawnings may be made from the ratio of the number of ova in the most advanced mode to the number of remaining maturing eggs (MacGregor 1957). This data is presented in Table V. The eggs in the most advanced mode are quite sharply defined in class F and the following classes. In the class F gonads,
TABLE V
PERCENTAGES OF SMALLER YOLKED OVA AND OVA IN THE MOST ADVANCED GROUP (MODE A) IN THE VARIOUS CLASSES
Class F G H J % of ova other than included under 33.50 40.0 44.9 63.35 mode a % of ova in mode a 66.50 60.0 Epps | 36.65
the eggs in the advanced mode make up 66.5% of the total as compared to 33.5°% made up by the remaining maturing eggs. This ratio falls from 66.5% in class F to 60.0% in class G, to 55.1% in class H, and further to 36.65% in class J. Thus, it appears that new eggs are constantly being added to the stock of maturing eggs. Assuming that all the maturing eggs are spawned, the number of possible spawnings may be fixed at a minimum of three, the number of ova in the most advanced mode in class J being about 4 the total number of maturing ova. Since there is no information concerning this ratio in a ripe ovary, no definite estimate of the number of spawnings can be made. It is possible that more ova are added to the stock of maturing ova as the ovary ripens and that this ratio falls below 4. The eggs may then be spawned in more than three batches.
(f) Ponderal Index
In the present investigation the ponderal index was calculated by the formula : K=W/L?3 x 107 where K = Ponderal Index W = Weight of fish in gm. L = Total length of fish in mm. The values of the ponderal index were pooled in two ways to find the arithmetic means of each size group and of each month. These have been presented in Figures 5 and 6.
Hart (1946) pointed out that since adolescent fish have higher K values than older fish, the variation in the K values at different lengths
BIOLOGY OF COILIA DUSSUMIERI (CUV. AND VAL.) 67
K - VALUES OoO——o FEMALE
35 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190 195
Gir AL. A EINGIEEAlINi MM):
Fig. 5. Mean condition factor(K) of Coilia dussumieri at different lengths.
&-----a MAL Ee oo EMALE
CCT. NOV. DEC. JAN, FEB. MAR. APR, MAY. JUN. JULY, AUG. SEP.
Fig 6. Mean condition factor (K) of Coilia dussumieri in different months.
68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
can be employed to determine the size of first maturity, at which point an inflexion may be expected to occur.
In the present case, there is no point of inflexion in the curve which may indicate the size at first maturity. The values of K seem to be fluctu- ating without much indication between the 91-95 mm. and 121-125 mm. length groups in both sexes. Thereafter, the fluctuation is within narrower limits. On the basis of gonadial studies, 131-140 mm. was considered to be the size at first maturity in females. The curves for both the sexes change slope at this point, which is more marked in females than in males. One may regard this point as corresponding to the point of inflexion as sugges- ted in Ophicephalus punctatus, by Qayyum & Qasim (1964 a). The absence of any distinct pattern in K values at various lengths groups may be due to the wide range of size of the fish at various stages of maturity.
Seasonal variations in the ponderal index have been illustrated in Figure 6. As no ripe fish and only a few spent fishes were found, the con- dition factor may not be expected to record a fall due to metabolic strain consequent upon spawning. The seasonal fluctuations in K values, there- fore, do not indicate the spawning season of the fish.
(g) Fecundity
Estimates of fecundity from 21 specimens ranged from 1,200 to 4,200. The total number of eggs spawned by each individual in a season may be estimated at 3,600 to 12,600 as the spawning probably occurs thrice during the season. The details of fecundity counts are given in Table VI.
TABLE VI
TOTAL LENGTH, BODY WEIGHT, GONAD WEIGHT AND FECUNDITY ESTIMATES OF 21 SPECIMENS OF Coilia Dussumieri
Total length Body weight Gonad weight Fecundity
15.1 10.8 0.127 1191 14.7 8.2 0.368 1556 17.1 13-3 0.678 2033 14.9 16.3 0.408 2047 16.3 12.9 0.928 2150 17.0 12.0 0.435 2234 16.4 12.0 0.516 2267 16.3 11-9 0.598 2361 16.3 13.9 0.717 2407 15.9 12.4 0.545 2450 16.1 11.4 0.633 2480 15.5 9.8 0.470 2508 16.0 11.8 0.601 2535 17.3 15.7 0.964 2682 15.9 10.4 0.490 2715 16.7 1322 1.068 2743 14.5 10.5 0.713 2760 15.6 12.2 0.725 2888 15.8 17.0 0.458 2899 17.7 16.8 0.942 3004 17,3 16.4
1.1015 4214
BIOLOGY OF COILIA DUSSUMIERI (CUV. AND VAL.) 69
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to Dr. D. V. Bal, formerly Director and Professor of Zoology, Institute of Science, Bombay, for suggesting the problem and for going through the manuscript, and to Dr. S. Z. Qasim, National Institute of Oceanography, Ernakulam, for going through the manu- script and offering many valuable suggestions. Thanks are also due to Shri K. Shrinivas Rao, Central Marine Fisheries Research Sub-station, Bombay, and to Shri V. B. Masurekar and Dr. M. S. Rege, Institute of Science, Bombay, for their valuable guidance throughout the course of
this investigation.
REFERENCES
BAL, D. V. & JosH1, M. S. (1956): Studies on the biology of Coilia dussu- mieri (Cuv. and Val.), Ind. J. Fish. 3: 91-100.
Bat, D. V. & PRADHAN, L. B. (1952): Records of zooplankton in Bombay waters during 1944-47. J. Univ. Bombay, 20(5): 75.
BapaT, S. V. & BAL, D. V. (1950): The food of some young clupeids. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (B), 32: 39.
CLARK, F. N. (1934): Maturity of California Sardine (Sardina caerulea) determined by ova-diameter measure- ments. Fish. Bull. Sacramento Cal. 42x 1-49, 19 figs.
DELSMAN, H. C. (1932): Fish eggs and larvae rom Java Sea. Treubia, 14: 114-116.
GRAHAM, M. (1956): Sea Fisheries Edward Arnold (Ltd.), London.
Hart, T. J. (1946): Report of hawling surveys on Patagonian continental shelf. Discovery Reports, 23: 223-408.
Hott, S. J. (1959): Report of the international training centres on the methodology and techniques of research of mackerel. A.O. Rome, Report No. 1095.
Howarp, G. V. & LANDA, A. (1958): A Study of age, growth, sexual maturity and spawning of the anchoveta (Ceteng- raulis mysticetus) in the Gulf of Panama. Inter-Amer. Trop. Tuna. Com. Bull., 2(2) : 359-437.
JONES, M. S. & MENON, P. M. G. (1952): Observations on the development and systematics of the fishes of the genus Coilia, Gray. J. Zool. Soc. India. 4: 17-36.
JOSEPH, JAMES (1963): Contributions to the biology of engraulid Anchoa naso
(Gilbert and Pierson, 1898) from Ecua- derian water. Inter Amer. Trop. Tuna Comm. Bull. 8 (1): 1-30.
JosHi, M. S & BAL, D. V. (1953a): The skeleton of Coilia dussumieri, I. The Skull. J. Univ. Bombay, 21: 93.
(1953b). The skeleton of Coilia dussumieri. II. The vertebral co- pura and appendicular skeleton. Ibid., 222153
MacGrecor, JOHN S. (1957): Fecun- dity of the Pacific Sardine, (Sardinops caerulea). U.S. Dept. Interior. Fish and as Service, Fishery Bulletin. 121-57:
37-449.
PALEKAR, V. C. & KARANDIKAR, K. R. (1953): Maturity and Spawning of Coilia dussumieri (Cuv. and Val.) in Bombay waters during different months of the year. J. Zool, Soc. India. 5 : 163-167.
Qasim, S. Z. (1957a): The biology of Blennius pholis L. (Teleosti). Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 128: 161-208.
(19576): The biology of Centronotus gunnellus (L.). J. Anim. Ecol. 26; 389-401.
Qayyum, A. & Qasim, S. Z. (1964a). Studies on the biology of some fresh water fishes. Part I—Ophicephalus punc- tatus Bloch. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61(1): 74-98.
—— (19645): Studies on the biology of some _ fresh water fishes. Part 1]—Barbus stigma (Cuv. and Val.), Ibid 61 (2): 330-347.
(1964c): Studies on the biology of some fresh water fishes. Part 1I—Callichrous bimaculatus — (Bloch.). Ibid 61(3) : 627-650.
VERGHESE, T. J. (1961): Some obser- vations on the biology of Coilia borneen- sis (Blkr.). Indian J. Fish. 8: 312-325.
Falconry
BY S. M. OsMAN
(With two plates)
The art and practice of falconry has been described in many treatises in different languages but very few people know anything about it. There has always been considerable controversy regarding its origin, though there is historical evidence that it has been in existence from c. 1200 B.C. Falconry probably originated in Central Asia from whence it spread to Persia and India. The Arabs learned it from the Persians, and it was brought to Europe by the returning Crusaders, who undoubtedly learnt the art from the Arabs.
In the beginning, falconry was perhaps primarily a means of provid- ing man his daily food; today it survives as an unparalleled sport which demands of its devotees, great skill, endurance, and patience.
In India, at one time the stronghold of falconry, its science and practice is now rapidly declining. In my opinion, different causes have contributed towards its downfall. The shotgun is mainly responsible for accelerating the disappearance of this noble sport. There used to be a time when the hawk market of Amritsar would, in the months of October and November, offer for sale numerous hawks and falcons of different kinds. The clientele were the representatives of all the sporting Princes of the country, who vied with one another for some really good hawk or falcon. Today the number of hawk enthusiasts in the country could be counted on the fingers of one hand and the hawk market of Amritsar has ceased to exist. The aspiring falconer finds it difficult to get hawks. Bird catchers have absolutely no idea how tocatch hawks or, howto handle them after capture. As a result hawks procured from such sources generally die within a few days of their capture. As is obvious, mishandling and bad feeding are entirely responsible. Since falconry is no longer a lucrative business, professional falconers have ceased to function. I prefer to trap my own hawks.
Though not much in vogue, there exist excellent possibilities for the revival of this sport of kings. The main point to remember in its pursuit is the choice of bird and this is directly related to the type of country one lives in, as well as to the kind of game available. Falcons are at their best in | open and flat country where the quarry is obliged to fly long distances before gaining the shelter of bushes. In places where there are many trees | and thick bushes growing at short intervals, the ““Accipiter” hawks are _
FALCONRY 71
in their element. In such terrain a bird capable of short determined dashes alone is useful. One has also to consider the game available in terms of speed and weight. In the case of hawks and of falcons a wide range of birds, capable of hunting heavy and light game, is to be found. One should not expect a small hawk to do the work of the larger ones, or the heavier birds to have the dash and manoeuvrability of the smaller predators.
I have always had a great passion for training eagles and, even today, have with me a pair of fully trained hunting eagles. Hunting with eagles is an incomparable sport.
The Sparrow-Hawk (Accipiter nisus) if trained and handled properly would be an ideal beginner’s hawk. These birds may be found in great abundance along the foothills of the Himalayas. They have courage and speed, and will readily tackle birds heavier than themselves. Their only weak point happens to be their delicate constitution which calls for much attention and careful handling. This, a beginner may be unable to give, hence I would suggest the Shikra 'Sparrow-Hawk ( Accipiter badius ) as an alternative. Though slightly smaller in size, this hawk will stand a lot of mishandling at the hands of inexperienced falconers without show- ing any signs of loss of condition. A lusty hawk, if properly trained to hunt, it will perform as efficiently as its bigger brother the Sparrow-Hawk (Accipiter nisus). The Shikra is, of course, a lot slower but this can be overcome to some extent by holding the bird in the palm of your hand and literally throwing it at the quarry. This form of casting is intended to give the hawk added impetus. Such liberties are not possible with the more sensitive Sparrow-Hawk. The Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) is the best amongst hawks of all kinds. It is an extremely shy bird, very sensitive, and quite difficult to train. Once trained, however, it is unsurpassed for close quarter hunting. A falconer who does not consider himself an expert should give this bird a wide berth.
Broadly speaking all hawks receive the same sort of training. They are cast from the fist at game and, if unsuccessful, are called back to the fist, in which is firmly held a piece of meat. A hawk must never be given a chance to soar. Once a hawk starts soaring no amount of calling is ever going to bring it back to the owner’s fist. When it ultimately decides to return to earth, it is going to be a good many miles away from the place from which it originally took off.
A falcon on the other hand receives a totally different sort of training. In this case the higher it soars and the longer it keeps soaring, the better will it be appreciated. Falcons are trained to wait at considerable heights, till game is flushed from cover. Once game is forced to come out in the open, the attending falcon immediately stoops at it from above, where it had kept watch. Given proper conditions, the chances are that the
72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
quarry will be struck dead before it has been able to gain the sanctuary of the next lot of bushes and cover. Falcons are not called to the fist but to the lure, which is merely a weighted leather bag about the size of the human fist. Attached to it are the wing feathers of a pigeon; also tied to one end is a stout cord some twelve feet in length. This the falconer swings over his head at the same time calling out aloud to attract the falcon’s attention. After swinging the lure a couple of times he lets it drop on the ground. It is then slowly retrieved, and the swinging operation repeated till the falcon decides to fly down to it.
Eagles are trained to jump to the fist. They are also trained to fly to the lure when necessary. To give a detailed description of the various methods of training of the different hawks and falcons would be quite beyond the scope of an article of this kind. As a matter of fact many books have been written on the subject. However, unless there is at all times a guide at the beginner’s elbow, no amount of written literature is ever going to help a raw hand with his first hawk; hence the necessity of falconers’ clubs. Membership of such clubs would entitle the beginner to free advice and demonstrations.
The most important thing for a falconer to know, is the difference between hawks and falcons. To the experienced eye, this is easy and provided he makes it a point to remember, even the inexperienced novice can easily tell one from the other. All hawks have yellow. eyes and all falcons have black eyes. True eagles can always be identified by their feathered legs.
There are many kinds of falcons. The smallest being the Red-headed Merlin or turumti (Falco chicquera). A pretty bird, it has some peculiar- ities that are not present in other falcons, barring the Gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus). The similarity lies in the formation of the primary feathers in relation to the tail feathers. It will be noticed that in the case of the Merlin and the Gyrfalcon the tips of the primary feathers fall short of the end of the tail feathers by some inches. Another peculiarity is that merlins do not soar. I have trained and hunted with dozens of these stout-hearted birds, but so far, I have yet to come across a merlin, that will soar in the manner of other falcons. This is the only case where a falcon departs from convention and must in consequence, be treated like a hawk. In this case the lure would be an unnecessary appendage; this is the main reason why merlins are trained to fly to the fist of the falconer, a line of training not dissimilar to the one given to hawks in general. A merlin may chase game and, in doing so, rise up in spirals, but this is not real soaring.
A notch is present on the beak of all falcons. Nature has provided this notch so that the falcon, after wedging the neck of its prey between it and the lower mandible, is able with a sharp twist to break it. Those
J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (1) PLATE I
Osman: Falconry
Above: Shahin Falcon (Falco peregrinus peregrinator), Tiercel.
Below: Hodgson’s Hawk-Eagle (Spizaetus nipalensis), on quarry.
(Photos: Author)
(Aoyjnp :sojoyd) ‘ (sisuajpdiu snjapz41dg) 3[3eq-YMeH S.UOsspoyy (SNJDYANI SNJavZIdGy) I]8eA-YMCH{ Paysoig
AJUOD[V- : URLUSE
I] 3LV1d (1) 9 ‘OOS “ISIH “LYN AVAWog ‘¢
FALCONRY 73
who know their birds of prey will have noticed that all falcons kill their victims by twisting and breaking their necks. Hawks kill their victims not by twisting their necks but by repeatedly squeezing them.
You do not have to be a hawk expert to be able to roughly place its age. All that is required is a close examination of the bird’s eye. Im- mature birds (juvenile birds) have the iris a pale yellow in colour. In birds that are two to three years of age the iris changes to an orange tint. Five-year-olds have a deep red iris. Sometimes a very old bird, say ten or twelve years old, may even have copper-tan coloured iris. In most hawks, excepting the sparrow-hawk, the markings on the breast of the juvenile bird, are elongated spots. After the first moult, the spots dis- appear and are replaced by bars. This is a regular feature noticeable in hawks as well as falcons of the peregrine (peregrinator) group. In other falcons it is not very easy to tell the age, unless one has considerable experience. Here one does not find any tell-tale change in the colour of the iris. Old birds are lighter in colour and their tails are shorter than the tails of immature birds. Age determination becomes the job of an expert, especially in the case of desert falcons such as the Lanner Falcon (Falco biarmicus), the Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug), and the Laggar Falcon (Falco jugger).
Falcons are some of the fastest birds on earth and nature has, in consequence, provided them with a complicated nostril structure which makes respiration comparatively easy for them while travelling at high speed. Without such complex nostril mechanism it would be impossible for the falcons to breath normally, while travelling at speed. Another point clearly noticeable in all falcons is the moustachial stripes under the eyes. The purpose of these stripes is to absorb light and thus to reduce glare.
Falconry is one of the finest sports known to man. Style and skill are of paramount importance, and it is not the number of kills but the manner in which the kill is made that really matters. One has further to realise that in the case of-falconry the question of game getting away wounded to die in agony simply does not arise. Either it is killed outright or it escapes unscathed.
In India, unfortunately, the days of falconry are numbered and if no immediate steps are taken to revive the sport, it will never return.
Books are useful to the practical falconer, though for the beginner, it would be rather difficult to get very far by reading alone. In any case, a list of important books on falconry, published in different languages, is given below.
74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1) .
BIBLIOGRAPHY ABBASI, KHUDAYAR KHAN (1908) : Qawaninus-sayyad (Baz-Nama) The Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta. (Persian)
ANON (1886): A Perfect Booke for Keeping Sparrowhawkse and Goshawkse. Quartrich, London.
BLAINE (1936): Falconry. Allen, London.
FREEMAN, AND SALVIN (1859): Falconry; its claims, History and Practice. Longmans, London.
Hit.or, P. (1908): The Baz-Nama-Yi-Nasiri (Treatise on falconry). Quartrich, London. Translated from Persian.
MAVROGORDATO (1960): A Hawk for the Bush. Witherby, London.
—_—_—_—____——., (1966): A Falcon in the Field. Knightly Vernon Ltd., London.
OsMAN, S. MOHAMED (1965): Falconry—The Sparrowhawk. Cheetal 8: 20.
RUDRADEVA, RAJA (1910): Syainika Sastra or Book on Hawking. The Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta. (Sanskrit)
SEBRIGHT (1826): Observation upon hawking. Harding H. Wright, London.
Additions to the Flora of Mussoorie Hills
BY
M. B. RAIZADA, M.SC., F.N.I.! AND
H. O. SAXENA, M.SC., PH.D.?
Herbarium, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun
In the botanical literature the first mention of Mussoorie is found in Royle’s ///. Bot. Himal., published in 1833-1840. U.N. Kanyjilal (1928) in Flora Chakrata also mentions Mussoorie in giving the distribution of some species. Besides, notable contributions to the flora of Mussoorie have been attempted since 1909 when James Marten published a list of 314 species of flowering plants. Then Allen (1919) added 32 species and Watts (1954) published further records of 41 species, and estimated the number of plants that comprise the flora of Mussoorie as between 700-750 species. Recently Raizada (1959) published a list of plants occurring in Mussoorie, raising the number of species of Phanerogams, Ferns, and Fern Allies to 1331. The following is a further list of plants which are reported for the first time from the Mussoorie Hills. The area of collec- tion is the same as was considered by Raizada (1959). Cultivated plants and plants found as escapes have not been included in the list, unless they have been found naturalized in the area.
RANUNCULACEAE Clematis orientalis L. Mossy Fall, in shady places. Fl. Aug.-Sept.
Ranunculus arvensis L.
Occasional weed of cultivation, below Bhatta-Dhobighat. Saxena 1677. Fl. Feb.-March. Fr. March-April.
Thalictrum javanicum B1.
Common along waysides in shady places. Rajpur, Kamptee Fall, etc. Saxena 1226, 1301. Fl. July-Oct. Fr. Oct.-Nov.
i Now, Principal, D.A.V. (Post Graduate) College, Dehra Dun. 2 Now, Forest Botanist, State Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur.
Materials for this paper are taken from the Ph.D. thesis of the Junior author, who wishes to express his deep sense of gratitude to the Ministry of Scientific Research and Cultural Affairs, for the grant of a scholarship. The author is also thankful to the President, Forest Research Institute & Colleges and Officer-in-Charge, Botany Branch, F.R.I., Dehra Dun for kindly providing necessary facilities to work.
76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
MENISPERMACEAE
Stephania glabra (Roxb.) Miers.
Rajpur 1000 m. along waysides in thickets and over shrubs. Saxena 1297, 2107. Fl. July-Aug. Fr Aug.-Oct.
Loc. name: Para or Parha
BERBERIDACEAE
Mahonia acanthifolia G. Don.
Occasional in oak forests, 1700-2100 m. Kamptee Road, Masonic Lodge, Barlowganj, near Charleville, Koeti Kimoen Forest etc. Saxena 314, 2349. Fl. Feb.-April. Fr. May-June.
Loc. name: Totar
CRUCIFERAE
Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heyn.
Rajpur, along waysides in open dry places. Saxena 376. Fl. & Fr. Jan.-March.
Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm.
In open, somewhat moist spots at Kulri, Bhatta-Dhobighat etc. Along stream at Mossy Fall. Saxena 619, 755, 1556. Fl. & Fr. April-Dec.
Eruca sativa Gars.
Rajpur, up to 1050 m.—Occasional along waysides and in waste lands near settled areas. Saxena 226. Fl. Jan.-Feb.
Lepidium ruderale L. |
Along waysides in waste lands and in fields, 915-2050 m. Rajpur, Bhatta-Dhobighat, Mall Road, Jabarkhet Road etc. Saxena 674, 753. Fl. May-June. Fr. July-Sept.
CAPPARIDACEAE Capparis zeylanica L.
Occasional at Rajpur. Saxena 411. Fl. March-May. Fr. June-Sept.
Cleome viscosa L.
A weed in fields and along roadsides, 915-1500 m. Rajpur, Kamptee etc. Saxena 1973. Fl. June. Fr. July-early Oct.
Loc. name: Jakhia
ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF MUSSOORIE HILLS Li
FLACOURTIACEAE
Casearia tomentosa Roxb.
Frequent up to 1200 m. especially south of Mussoorie; Rajpur, Kutalgaon etc. Sometimes in sal forests. Saxena 408, 1732, 1758, 1902. Fl. March-April. Fr. May-July.
Loc. name: Chilla
PORTULACEAE
Portulaca oleracea L. subsp. silvestris (DC.) Thellung.
A common weed along roadsides at Rajpur; and in and along fields in moist spots at Arnigarh. Saxena 2810, 1989. Fl. June-Sept. Fr. Sept.-May.
MALVACEAE
Abelmoschus manihot (L.) Medic. var. pungens (Roxb.) Hochr. Kamptee, scarce in open places. Saxena 2241, Fl. Sept.
Malva verticillata L. var. chinensis (Mill.)
Occasional along waysides at Kulri, Depot, near Jabarkhet etc. Saxena 970, 1353, 2049. Fl. & Fr. July-Sept.
The elongated pedicels and small flowers of this variety misled some authors to name it as Malva parviflora. The latter species has glabrous staminal tube and manifestly reticulate carpels with sharp edges.
Sida cordifolia L.
Occasional in open dry and often stony waste places at Rajpur, Kutal Gate, Kamptee Road etc. Saxena 1389, 2232. Fl. & Fr. Sept.-Nov.
TILIACEAE
Corchorus olitorius L.
A weed in Arhar field at Raypur. Saxena 1316, 2224. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Fr. Sept.-Oct. Grewia subinaequalis DC.
Occasional at Rajpur, both cultivated and wild. Saxena 1886, 1975, 2118. Fl. April-May. Fr. June-July. Triumfetta pentandra A. Rich.
Fairly common in open or shady waste places at Rajpur, Kutal Village, Kamptee etc. Saxena 103&(A), 1191, 1329(A). Fl. & Fr. Aug.- Nov.
78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
OxXALIDACEAE
Biophytum reinwardtii (Zucc.) Klotz. Occasional in open places at Rajpur and Kamptee. Saxena 1062. Fl. & Fr. Late Aug.-Sept.
RUTACEAE
Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. Cultivated and also apparently wild at Rajpur. Saxena 1977. FI. June-July. Fr. June (next year).
VITACEAE
Parthenocissus semicordata (Wall.) Planch. var. semicordata.
Occasional in oak forest along Municipal Garden Road. Saxena D.D. No. 138679. Fl. June.
The var. semicordata (proper) differs from var. roylei in the hispid nature of the young branches, petioles, and nerves on the lower surface of the leaves.
Tetrastigma affine (Gagnep. ex Osmaston) Raizada & Saxena comb. nov Vitis affinis Gagnep. ex Osmaston, For. Fl. Kumaon 119, 1927.
A climber on rocks and in crevices; Jharipani (Oak Grove), Barlow- ganj, Bhatta Fall etc. Saxena 260, 1460, 1661. Fl. July-Sept. Fr. Oct.- March.
ANACARDIACEAE
Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz.
Rare at Rajpur and up to 1100 m. on the Motor Road. Saxena 1926. Fl. March-April. Fr. June-Sept.
Loc. name: Amara or Amra
PAPILIONACEAE
Alysicarpus bupleurifolius (L.) DC. var. bupleurifolius. Rajpur, occasional in open places. Saxena 2331. Fl. & Fr. Sept.
Atylosia volubilis (Blanco) Gamble. Rajpur, occasional in sal forest. Saxena 1629. Fl. Feb.-March. Fr. March-April.
Crotalaria alata Buch -Ham. ex Roxb. Rajpur, rare in sal forest. Saxena 2304. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Fr. Oct.
ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF MUSSOORIE HILLS 79
Crotalaria humifusa Grah. ex Benth.
Rare, on open grassy slopes at Kamptee Fall and Murray’s Spring. Saxena 2255. Fl. Sept. Fr. Oct.-Nov.
Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk.
Occasional, in open places at Kamptee Fall. Saxena 1404, 2245. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Fr. Sept.-Oct.
Crotalaria mysorensis Roth.
Rare, in open places at Rajypur. Saxena 1446(B), 2208. Fl. Sept.- Oct. Fr. Oct.-Nov.
Crotalaria prostrata Rottl.
Occasional, near sal forest, Rajpur, usually in sheltered places. Saxena D.D. No. 138668. Fl. Late Aug.-Oct. Fr. Oct.-Nov.
Crotalaria tetragona Roxb.
Rare, in sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena 1771. Fl. Sept.-Nov. Fr. March- June.
Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex DC.
Frequent at Rajpur, ascending to 1400 m. on Rajpur- Mussoorie Motor Road. Saxena 396. Fl. March-May. Fr. Nov.-Feb.
Indigofera linifolia (L.f.) Retz.
Along waysides in open stony ground at Rajpur. Saxena 1314, 1885. Fl. March-Sept. Fr. Sept.-Oct.
Lathyrus aphaca L.
Occasional on Kamptee Road; frequent in fields below Bhatta Dhobighat. Saxena 347, 1671. Fl. & Fr. Feb.-May.
Melilotus indica All.
Occasional along waysides and drains at Rajpur, ascending to 1220 m. Saxena 277, 1683(B), D.D. No. 138640. Fl. & Fr. Nov.-April.
Pueraria phaseoloides (Roxb.) Benth. Rajpur, frequent in sal forest. Saxena 2205. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Fr. Sept.
Rhynchosia falconeri Baker
Occasional, in open places at Kamptee, Murray’s Spring, near Cloud End and in the grasslands of Benog. Saxena 1193, 1282, 1505. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Fr. Oct.-Nov.
Shuteria densiflora Benth. Occasional at Rajpur. Saxena 1595 Fl. Oct.-Nov. Fr. Dec.
80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
Smithia conferta Sm. Rajpur, common in moist places near sal forest. Saxena 2299(B). Fl. Sept.-Oct. Fr. Oct.-Nov.
Smithia sensitiva Ait. Rajpur, sal forest in somewhat moist situations. Saxena 1580, 2299(A). Fl. Sept.-Oct. Fr. Dec. o
Trigonella corniculata L Rajpur, occasional along roadsides in waste lands. Saxena 1753. Fl. March-April. Fr. April-June.
Trigonella polycerata L. Along roadsides at Rajpur. As a weed in wheat fields at Kamptee. Saxena 1756, 1841. Fl. & Fr. March-May.
Uraria rufescens (DC.) Schind. Occasional in sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena 2303. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Fr. Sept.-Oct.
CAESALPINACEAE
Cassia laevigata Willd. Occasional along fields below Bhatta-Dhobighat and also near Bhatta Toll Bar. Saxena 850, 1378. Fl. July-Sept. Fr. Oct.-Dec.
Cassia pumila Lamk. Frequent along waysides, in open places near Kamptee Rest House. Saxena 1203. Fl. July-Aug. Fr. Sept.-Oct.
ROSACEAE
Rubus foliolosus D. Don.
Occasional on the way to Park Gate and Barlowganj. Saxena 632, 906. Fl. & Fr. April-Sept.
Loc. name: Anchu
COMBRETACEAE
Combretum roxburghii Spreng. Occasional at Rajpur. Saxena 2343. Fl. Nov.-Dec.
Terminalia bellirica Roxb. Rare on the Bridle Path above Rajpur upto 1050 m. and in sal forest. Saxena 1788. Fl. April-May. Fr. Dec.-Feb.
ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF MUSSOORIE HILLS 81
MYRTACEAE Syzygium cerasoides (Roxb.) Chatt. et Kanj. Occasional in sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena 1913. Fl. April-May. Loc. name: Piyanam Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels. Frequent in sal forest and often cultivated at Rajpur. Saxena 530, 1887. Fl. April-May. Fr. June-July.
LYTHRACEAE Ammannia baccifera L.
Kamptee Fall, in wet rice fields. Saxena 1548, 2247. Fl. & Fr. Sept.- Nov.
Ammannia multiflora Roxb.
Kamptee Fall, abundant in wet rice fields. Saxena 1546, 2099. Fl. & Fr. July-Nov.
Rotala mexicana Cham. & Schlecht.
Gregarious in open moist spots near sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena 2293. Fl. & Fr. Late Sept.-Oct.
Rotala rotundifolia (Buch.-Ham.) Koehne.
Abundant in and around water ditches near sal forest, Rajpur. Aquatic or in marshy places. Saxena 1634, 2091. Fl. Feb.-March.
CUCURBITACEAE Bryonopsis laciniosa (L.) Naud. var. laciniosa.
Occasional in waste places at Rajpur. Saxena 1286. Fl. & Fr. Sept.- Oct.
Cucumis sativus L.
Common at Rajpur, ascending to 1200 m. Occasional at Kamptee Fall and Charleville. Saxéna 1032, 1396, 2139. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Fr. Oct.
Except fruits, which are very bitter in taste, C. hardwickii Royle is similar in all essential characters to C. sativus L. The two species are
now considered conspecific. It is the (bitter) form C. hardwickii which occurs wild in the area.
CACTACEAE Opuntia monacantha Haw.
Occasional in dry waste lands at Rajpur; rare at Jharipani. Saxena 1918. Fl. April-May.
Loc. name: Soru
82 JOURNAL, BOM BAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
UMBELLIFERAE Bunium persicum (Boiss.) Fedt.
Occasional along roadsides near Kincraig and Barlowganj. Saxena D. D. No. 139182. Fl. Nov.
Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague. Rare, near Jabarkhet. Saxena 1365. Fl. Sept.-Oct. RUBIACEAE Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Hook f.
Occasional in sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena 1628. Fl. June-July. Fr. Cold season.
Loc. name: Haldu
Galium vestitum D. Don.
Along waysides, 1500-2200 m. Kamptee, Arnigarh, Landour, Benog etc. Saxena D. D. No. 138334. Fl. & Fr. Aug.-Oct. Hedyotis pinifolia Wall. ex G. Don.
Occasional in somewhat moist and grassy places in and near sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena 1438(B), 2308, 2337. Fl. & Fr. Sept.-Oct. Knoxia sumatrensis (Retz.) DC. |
Rajpur, occasional in sal forest. Saxena 2097, 2306. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Fr. Sept.-Oct. Oldenlandia diffusa (Willd.) Roxb.
Rajpur, in moist and grassy places near sal forest. Saxena 2084. Fl. & Fr. July-Sept. Randia dumetorum Lamk.
Occasional in open places at Rajpur, Kutal village etc. Saxena 1900. Fl. April-June. Fr. Cold season.
Loc. name: Maidal -
COMPOSITAE Ageratum houstonianum Mill. Common in waste places at Rajpur, Jharipani etc. Saxena 201. Fl. & Fr. Nov.-March. Artemisia vulgaris L.
Common along waysides and in forest. Jabarkhet Road, Kamptee Road, Benog, Murray’s Spring Forest etc. Saxena 1186. Fl. & Fr. Aug.- Oct.
Loc. name: Chhamra (Samri)
ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF MUSSOORIE HILLS 83
Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philipson
Common in fields at Rajpur. Occasionally ascending to 1200 m., near Katta Patthar. Saxena 1325, 1453, 2171. Fl. & Fr. Aug.-Nov. Blumea mollis (D. Don) Merr.
Frequent along waysides and in waste lands, 915-1300 m. Rajpur, Ramtirth Ashram, Bridle Path etc. Saxena 563, 1726. Fl. & Fr. March- June.
Blumea laciniata (Roxb.) DC.
Occasional along waysides in somewhat dry places, 915-1500 m. Rajpur, Kutal Gate, Bhatta Fall etc. Saxena 591, 1817, 1882. Fl. & Fr. March-May.
Centipeda minima (L.) A. Br. & Aschers.
Bridle Path (1500 m.), rare in dry places. Saxena 1452. Fl. & Fr. June-Nov.
Cnicus argyracanthus (DC.) C.B.Cl.
Common in waste lands at Barlowganj. Saxena 577. Fl. & Fr. Late May-Sept.
Elephantopus scaber L. Rajpur, rare in sal forest. Saxena 2300. Fl. Oct.
Erigeron annuus Pers.
Common and often gregarious in open or somewhat shady places, 1500-2000 m. Camels Back Cemetery, Barlowganj, Kamptee Road, Municipal Garden, near Mossy Fall, way to Murray’s Spring etc. Fairly naturalized. Saxena 358, 667, 692. Fl. April-Aug. It is a native of America.
Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng.
Fairly common along stream below Bhatta-Dhobighat. Also found at Katta Patthar, Jharipani etc. Saxena 424. Fl. & Fr. March-July. Eupatorium riparium Regel.
Occasional along stream at Bhatta Fall (1450 m.), apparently wild. Saxena 1668, 1820(B). Fl. & Fr. March-April. A native of Mexico and West Indies.
Gnaphalium purpureum L.
Occasional along waysides in open or shady places. Cloud End, near Birla Niwas etc. Saxena 1391, 1473. Fl. & Fr. Sept.-Nov.
Laggera falcata O. Ktze.
Common on hill-sides at Rajpur especially near sal forest. Saxena 1435, 1581. Fl. & Fr. Oct.-Dec.
84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
Laggera pterodonta Sch.-Bip.
Occasional in waste lands at Rajpur. Along stream in moist and somewhat sheltered places near Kutalgaon. Saxena 185, 1733. Fl. & Fr. Jan.-April.
Prenanthes violaefolia Dcne.
Rare in sheltered places on the way to Benog, Dhobighat, Charle- ville Road etc. Saxena 1509. Fl. & Fr. Oct.-Nov. Wedelia wallichii Less.
Rare, in forest undergrowth at Kamptee Fall. Saxena 2141. Fl. & Fr. Aug.-Sept.
CAMPANULACEAE
Campanula canescens Wall. ex DC.
Occasional in open places at Bhatta Fall, Kamptee Fall etc. Saxena 1670. Fl. March. Fr. April-May. Cephalostigma hirsutum Edgew.
On open grassy slopes in Murray’s Spring Forest and near Bhatta Fall. Saxena 1384, 2556. Fl. & Fr. Sept.-Oct. Lobelia alsinoides Lamk.
Somewhat gregarious in open moist places near sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena 2294. Fl. & Fr. Sept.-Nov. Lobelia heyneana R. & S.
In moist places at Kamptee Fall. In sheltered, stony ground above Kutal village (1150 m.). Saxena 1541, 2231. Fl. & Fr. Sept.-Nov.
Wahlenbergia gracilis Schrad.
In somewhat moist grassy slopes in the clearings in sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena 1172. Fl. & Fr. March-June.
MYRSINACEAE
Ardisia solanacea Roxb.
Along shady ravines in sal forest at Raypur. Saxena 1767. Fl. May- June. Fr. Feb.-April.
OLEACEAE
Jasminum multiflorum Andre.
Occasional in open places at Rajpur. Saxena 194, 370. Fl. Dec.- April.
ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF MUSSOORIE HILLS 85
APOCYNACEAE
Ichnocarpus frutescens R.Br.
Occasional at Rajpur, often in sal forest. Saxena 1440, 2331. FI. Sept.-Nov.
ASCLEPIADACEAE
Cynanchum glaucum Wall.
Along wayside in open places on the way from Hathipaon to Cloud End. Saxena 2056. Fl. June-Aug.
Periploca calophylla Falc.
Climbing on trees in shady forest ; usually in shady ravines. Kamptee Fall, Bhatta Fall, Arnigarh, Barlowganj etc. Saxena 1715, 1848. FI. April-May. Fr. Cold season.
Tylophora himalaica Hook f.
Frequent in somewhat shady places at Kamptee Fall. Saxena 2023. Fl. July-Aug.
GENTIANACEAE
Canscora decussata R. & S.
Rare, along roadsides near sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena 1431. FI. & Fr. Oct.-Nov. Canscora diffusa R.Br. |
Occasional in open places at Rajpur, ascending to 1100 m. on the Bridle Path. Saxena 190, 1430. FI. & Fr. Oct.-Nov. Hoppea dichotoma Willd.
Gregarious in open grassy places at Bhatta Fall and near sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena 1382, 2289. Fl. & Fr. Late Sept.-Oct.
BORAGINACEAE
Bothriospermum tenellum (Horn.) Fisch. & Mey.
Kamptee Fall, in fields in moist spots. Saxena 1712. Fl. March- April. Fr. April.
CONVOLVULACEAE
Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet.
Commonly grown for ornamental purposes and naturalized at many places at Rajpur, along waysides in thickets, over hedges etc. Saxena 407. Fl. Most parts of the year.
86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
Ipomoea muricata (L.) Jacq.
Occasional along waysides, over shrubs and in thickets at Rajpur, Kutalgaon, up to 1000 m. Saxena 2222. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Fr. Sept.-Nov. Volvulopsis nummularia (L.) Roberty
Rajpur, in open sunny places near sal forest. Saxena 2355. Fl. Sept.- Oct. Fr. Oct.-Nov.
SOLANACEAE Cestrum parquil Her.
Fairly common in open waste lands, south of Mussoorie, 1500-2000 m., Jharipani, Barlowganj, near Masonic Lodge etc. Completely naturalized. Saxena 578. Fl. April-July (but remains flowering in most parts of the year). Fr. July. Datura tatula L. var. tatula.
Occasional in waste lands at Rajpur. Saxena 2168. Fl. April-Aug. Fr. June-Sept.
SCROPHULARIACEAE
Antirrhinum orontium L.
Occasional along waysides in waste lands, 915-2100 m., Rajpur-Jabar- khet Road etc. Saxena 387, 1720. Fl. & Fr. Feb.-July. Centranthera nepalensis D.Don.
In open grassy places near sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena 2319. Fl. & Fr. July-Oct. Limpophila rugosa (Roth) Merr.
Along water ditches near sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena 2324. Fl. Sept.- Oct. Fr. Oct.-Nov. | Lindernia hookeri subsp. kumaunensis Pennell
Abundant in open grassy places near sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena 2315. Fl. & Fr. Sept.-Oct. Lindernia pyxidaria All.
Somewhat gregarious in wet rice fields at Kamptee Fall. Saxena 2248. Fl. & Fr. Late Aug.-early Oct.
Lindernia sessiliflora (Benth.) Wettest.
Frequent in moist spots in harvested field at Kamptee Fall ; occasional on moist hill-sides, 1000-1600 m.; Cloud End, Barlowganj etc. Saxena 1392, 1515, 2251, Fl, Aug.-Sept. Fr. Sept.-Nov.
ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF MUSSOORIE HILLS 87
Mella hamiltoniana (Benth.) Pennell
Rare in open grassy places near sal forest, Rajypur. Saxena 2312. FI. Sept. Scoparia dulcis L.
Common along roadsides in waste lands at Rajpur. Saxena 1058, 1302. Fl. July-Sept. Fr. Sept.-Nov. Verbascum chinense Sant.
Rajpur, in stony waste lands. Saxena 2087. Fl. & Fr. June-Aug.
Veronica biloba L.
Kamptee (1500 m.), rare, in dry places. Saxena 1843. Fl. & Fr. March-April. Veronica javanica Bl.
Rare, along stream in moist situations at Bhatta Fall. Saxena 604, 1816. Fl. & Fr. March-May.
LENTIBULARIACEAE
Utricularia pubescens Sm.
Rajpur, near sal forest in open marshy places among grass. Saxena 2327 (A). Fl. & Fr. Late Sept.-Oct.
This interesting species was hitherto known only from tropical Africa and South America and is recorded from India for the first time. Utricularia striatula Seem
Gregarious on moist walls among mosses; Half-way-House, Charle- ville Road etc. Also found on steep marshy slopes in sal forest, Rajpur. ~ Saxena 1734, 2196. Fl. & Fr. Aug.-Oct.
PEDALIACEAE Martynia annua L.
Occasional, in waste lands, on refuse dumps at Rajpur. Saxena 1020, 1284. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Fr. Oct.
ACANTHACEAE
Lepidagathis purpuricaulis Nees.
Occasional along wayside at Katta Patthar. Saxena 290. FI. Feb.- April. Fr. April-May. Perilepta edgeworthiana (Nees) Brem.
Rajpur along Motor Road in sal forest. Saxena 1584, 2346. FI. Oct.-Nov.
88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)
Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus (Roxb.) Nees. Rare, above Kutal Gate (1000 m.) along a field. Saxena 1741. FI. Feb.-April. Fr. Late March-May.
VERBENACEAE Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. .
In waste lands at Rajpur. Saxena 243, 400. Fl. March-April. Fr. May-July.
Loc. name: Karu or Karhu
LABIATAE
Acrocephalus indicus (Burm. f.) O. Ktze.
Common in somewhat moist situations at Rajpur and Kamptee Fall. Saxena 1046, 1315, 2207. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Fr. Oct.
Ajuga macrosperma Wall. ex Benth. var. macrosperma.
Occasional near streams in moist and shady places at Bhatta Fall (1500 m.), Kuta! village etc. Saxena 284, 1666, 1738, 1823 (A). FI. Feb.-April. Fr. April-May.
Elsholtzia pilosa (Benth.) Benth.
Common along waysides in somewhat moist situation at Depot, Jabarkhet Road etc. Saxena 1339, 2278. Fl. Sept.-Oct. Fr. Oct. Elsholtzia stachyodes (Link). Raizada & Saxena comb. nov.; Hyptis stachyodes Link, Enum. 2:106, 1822.
Along wayside in open or shady places near Polo ground, Charle- ville, and on the way to Murray’s Spring. Saxena 1332, 1529. Fl. Sept.- Oct. Fr. Oct.-Nov.
Leucas mollissima Wall. var. scaberula Hk.f.
Frequent in somewhat moist and shady places near or inside sal forest, Raypur. Saxena 2080. Fl. July-Aug. Fr. Aug.-Sept.
AMARANTHACEAE
Alternanthera paronychioides St. Hil.
Fairly common; carpeted along